Special Issue: Learning from hypermedia systems: cognitive approaches
Guest Editor: Jean-Francois Rouet,
Laboratoire Langage et Cognition, University of Poitiers and Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiqueGuest Editors: M. Bannert & P. Reimann
, University of Landau and University of Heidelberg______________________________________________________
C-K. Looi & D. Ang
Kent Ridge Digital Labs and School of Education, Nanyang Technological University,Singapore
Email: cheekit@iss.nus.edu.sg
The proliferation of the Internet has brought about the notion of online virtual communities. One enabling technology for online communities is multi-user environments such as Multi-User Dimensions (MUDs) and MUDS Object-Oriented (MOOs). These text-based collaborative learning environments have recently have been integrated with the World Wide Web, thus harnessing the graphics and multimedia-rich environments available therein. Learners can directly experience, manipulate, and create objects in their rich multimedia form. MUDs and MOOs are augmented with synchronous collaboration technology that provided simultaneous control and viewing of shared documents and applications. This paper describes a multimedia-enhanced MOO system called SpaceALIVE! and experiences from a pilot project involving Singapore students who use SpaceALIVE! as a collaborative learning environment are reported.
Keywords: Action research; Collaboration; Communication; MUDs; Secondary; Science
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 2-13. Accepted: 12 March 1999
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M. Ronen & M. Eliahu
Center for Technological Education, Holon, Israel
Email: ronen@barley.cteh.ac.il
This study aimed to examine the role of a simulation as a potential aid that may help students bridge the gap between theory and reality, in the case of electric circuits. Sixty three pairs of students aged about 15 years were presented with two tasks involving real circuits. An open simulation environment was available as an optional aid for the experimental group. Significant differences were found between the achievements of the groups. The use of the simulation contributed to students' confidence and enhanced their motivation to stay on-task. The detailed analysis revealed the role of the simulation as a source of constructive feedback, helping students identify and correct their misconceptions and cope with the common difficulties of relating formal representations to real circuits and vice versa.
Keywords: Constructivist; Control group; Electric circuits; Secondary; Simulations
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 14-26. Accepted: 23 March 1999
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G. Spellman
Nene University College
Email: greg.spellman@nene.ac.uk
In recent years the promotion and incorporation of Computer Assisted learning courseware has been a feature of many Geography Departments in Higher Education in the UK. There is little disagreement that this development needs to be thoroughly evaluated to ensure quality and effectiveness. However there has been a lack of rigorous evaluation in practice. A detailed illuminative evaluation of 120 Geography students using focus group interviews and an attitude survey reveals that CAL packages remain unpopular with most learners. This can be attributed to the content and presentation of packages but it is also suggested that contexts of use and perhaps staff disinterest are explanatory factors. Some gender-based and age-based attitude differences are noted. This type of evaluation is of greater use to curriculum developers than objective-led approaches.
Keywords: Computer; Courseware; Geography; Illuminative evaluation; Mediated; Questionnaire; Undergraduate
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 72-82. Accepted: 8 April 1999
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D. Passig & H. Levin
School of Education, Bar-Ilan University
E-Mail: passig@ashur.cc.biu.ac.il
This study examined the gender differences in the preferences to varying designs of multimedia learning interfaces. In the study it was assumed that design characteristics add to the interest in learning and a taxonomy of design of efficient user interfaces for both boys and girls was developed. The research included 90 children from three kindergarten classes who used interactive multimedia stories. The research subjects responded to questions which elicited their level of satisfaction with the various interfaces. The research findings indicate that there is a significant difference in the level of satisfaction between boys and girls depending on the design of the learning interfaces. This paper reports on the findings which were statistically significant.
Keywords: Gender; Interface; Multimedia; Pre-school; Qualitative; Satisfaction
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 64-71. Accepted: 15 April 1999
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D. Mioduser, H. Tur-Kaspa & I. Leitner
School of Education, Tel-Aviv University
Email: miodu@post.tau.ac.il
This study examined the unique contribution of computer-based instruction compared with more conventional modes of instruction (i.e. teacher instruction with textbooks) to early reading skills acquisition, as well as the effects of specific features of computer technology on early reading skills performance. Forty-six pre-school children (aged 5-6), at high risk for learning disabilities, participated in the study. They were assigned to one of three study groups which received different treatments. Three dependent variables were defined, i.e. children's phonological awareness, word recognition and letter recognition skills measured prior and after the treatment. Results clearly indicated that children at high risk for learning disabilities who received the reading intervention program with computer materials improved significantly in their phonological awareness, word recognition, and letter naming skills relative to their peers who received a reading intervention program with printed-only materials (without a computer) and those who receive no formal reading intervention program. The results are discussed in detail, with reference to the features of the computer-based materials that contributed to the acquisition of critical early reading skills.
Keywords: Computer; Control group; Instruction; Literacy; Pre-school; Reading; Special education
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 54-63. Accepted: 1 August 1999
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R.F.J. North, D.M. Strain & L. Abbott
School of Education, University of Ulster
Email: rfj.north@ulst.ac.uk
This paper presents an evaluation of a multimedia training programme, supported by a video-conference link, for senior school staff in the use of a computer-based Management Information System and the subsequent impact on the school organisation. The training took place as a part of the Education Departments' Superhighways Initiative. Two years later the impact of this initiative on school management practice was examined and the implications of subsequent patterns of staff use of ICT in management assessed. Results indicate that change strategies should involve attention to the totality of the relevant school system and should provide for professional dialogue and participation in the process.
Keywords: Change; Illuminative evaluation; Information Systems; IT-use; Multimedia; Teachers; Training
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 27-40. Accepted: 10 June 1999
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A. Anderson, W. Cheyne, H. Foot, C. Howe, J. Low & A. Tolmie
Department of Psychology, University of Strathclyde,
Email: Tony.Anderson@ccsun.strath.ac.uk
This paper reports on a study that was designed to explore computer support for peer-based learning in methodology tutorials. In particular, software was developed to organise group discussion, with the aim of leaving students free to concentrate on the more productive elements of group dialogue, and in particular discussing their ideas. Forty-three undergraduate psychology students in groups of 3-4 were given a series of computer-supported methodology tutorials designed to structure their discussion around issues concerning the design of their Honours dissertation. Students gave individual ratings of their reactions to both the software and the tutorial sessions more generally. A sample of their discussions was videotaped and the dialogues analysed. The written assignments in which they detailed their proposed empirical work (the 'Design Exercise') were blind marked and compared to a sample of similar assignments from the previous year. The results demonstrated that the computer-supported tutorials resulted in better quality Design Exercises, that the students' dialogues were overwhelmingly task-focussed and substantially transactive, and that their expressed satisfaction was generally high but with a desire for more preparation time before and between tutorials. The implications of the study for the use of computers to support groupwork are discussed.
Keywords: Communication; Dialogue analysis; Peer; Psychology; Satisfaction; Tutorial; Undergraduate
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 41-53. Accepted: 5 August 1999
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H. A. Ramadhan, Department of Computer Science, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman
Email: haider@squ.edu.om
The concept of Programming by Discovery refers to the process of designing programming environments and systems which use various visualisation, programming and interaction technologies in an effective way to help users, especially beginner programmers, in writing computer programs, understanding their dynamic behaviour, detecting any misconceptions and bugs associated with them, and seeing the effect of these programs on the underlying machine. A system for programming by discovery encourages a user to become an active learner by allowing him to form his own hypotheses, explore his own questions, and draw his own conclusions. This paper reports on the design and evaluation of a system for programming by discovery which embodies the principles outlined above. To assess the usefulness of the design framework presented in this paper, a pilot empirical evaluation was conducted. The results provided a number of interesting insights into the implication of incorporating visualisation and immediacy features along with graphical notional machine and algorithm-like language into the design of programming systems.
Keywords: Discovery learning; Empirical evaluations; Intelligent program diagnosis; Programming environments: Software; Visualisation
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 83-94. Accepted: 8 August 1999
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J-F. Rouet, Laboratoire Langage et Cognition, CNRS et Université de Poitiers
This Special Issue of JCAL focuses on the potential of hypermedia systems as learning tools, considered from cognitive perspectives. The term hypermedia results from the combination of ‘hypertext’ and ‘multimedia’. Both terms are now widely used to designate a variety of computer applications. From a more technical point of view, however, they are not synonymous. The notion of ‘hypertext’, coined in the sixties by Ted Nelson, was introduced by Conklin (1987) in the following terms:
"Mechanisms are being devised which allow direct machine-supported references from one textual chunk to another; new interfaces provide the user with the ability to interact directly with these chunks and to establish new relationships between them. These extensions of the traditional text fall under the category of hypertext (also known as non-linear text)." (Conklin, 1987, p. 17)
According to Conklin, a hypertext consists of (a) a database in which nodes are text chunks, and links are references from one chunk to another, and (b) a computer interface which allows the user to display and browse through the database. In other words, hypertext refers to both the contents (a set of interconnected texts) and computer-based tools to access those contents through a user-interface.
Kommers defines multimedia as "those computer-based applications that allow the user to see and hear different types of information via one screen with audio support" (Kommers, 1996, p. 4). Multimedia may include texts, pictures and possibly other types of information. According to Kommers, "hypermedia are computer-based applications for consulting multimedia resources" (ibid., p. 6). Thus hypermedia systems may be broadly defined as a family of computer applications intended to store and retrieve vast amounts of multimedia documents interconnected in nonlinear ways (the process of creating links is in itself part of the concept of hypermedia). ‘Nonlinearity’ means that each unit or page in a hypermedia document may be connected through several others by means of ‘hyperlinks’. This enables a new type of interaction between learners and documents called ‘browsing’ which is believed to have a positive effect on learning (Spiro & Jehng, 1990).
Each page in a hypermedia system may feature texts, pictures, sounds presented in static or dynamic ways, and according to visual or auditory sensory modalities. Again, multimedia presentation of information is considered beneficial to learning, at least in certain conditions (Mayer, 1997). Finally, in addition to content information, hypermedia documents usually include a variety of ‘navigation tools’, ranging from keyword search, explicit or embedded menus, history trees and so forth. The multiplicity of means available for information retrieval may also promote active learning strategies in students.
It is now acknowledged that the effectiveness of hypermedia systems as learning tools depends to a large extent on their compatibility with the psychological processes by which students perceive, understand and learn from complex information sources. As a result, the psychology of hypermedia learning is emerging as a new area of research (McKnight et al., 1993; Rouet et al., 1996; van Oostendorp & de Mul, 1996). Cognitive models of information processing, multimedia integration and memory development are used to generate hypotheses about the effectiveness of specific design decisions. This line of research may contribute to a better understanding of the potential of hypermedia technologies as learning tools. However there is a need to bridge the gap between laboratory research and the concrete practice of educational multimedia design and application. This is the core purpose of the present Special Issue.
The papers featured in this issue of JCAL originated in a conference held in Poitiers (France) on the topic of of ‘hypermedia and learning’ (Rouet & de la Passardière, 1999). The conference aimed at promoting communication between researchers and practitioners of hypermedia technologies in education. Indeed, several contributions illustrated where and how research and practice can meet. Some authors were invited to submit revised versions of their papers for this Special Issue. In addition to popularising the cognitive approach of hypermedia design among the JCAL readership, this issue is also meant to bring some work conducted in French speaking institutions (mostly in France and Switzerland) to the attention of English speaking colleagues.
The paper by Tricot and colleagues discusses the issue of learner support in hypermedia systems as a function of the type of learning activity considered. Clearly hypermedia may support a wide range of learning activities which differ with respect to the cognitive processes involved. Hence the need to think of hypermedia devices in terms of the specific learning processes which they may support. Tricot et al. argue for a distinction between three main types of learning activities: learning-by-doing (which focuses on problem solving), learning-by-instruction (which focuses on comprehension, i.e. the building of mental representations from external representations), and learning-by-exploration (which, according to them, shares some characteristics of the two previous categories). For each type of learning considered, they review and discuss the devices provided by hypermedia systems.
The other papers focus on various issues related to information integration in hypermedia. In its technological sense, integration is the process by which several tools or components are assembled in a given hypermedia system. The term integration, however, also refers to the way different pieces of information are related in a person's mind during comprehension or learning. Understanding the relationships between technological integration and cognitive integration is essential in the design of effective hypermedia systems. The papers presented in this issue address the issue at two distinct levels: a global level and a local level.
Global integration refers to the top-level organisation of documents in the system, as well as to the nature of the information management tools provided for the user. The main obstacle to profitable uses of hypermedia in secondary education lies in their very defining characteristic: the capacity to display vast amounts of ill-structured documentary information in the form of texts, pictures, sounds intertwined in complex networks. Empirical studies have consistently found that most students tend to get lost and overwhelmed in such environments, which results in their inability to retrieve useful information or to retain it for further use (Wright, 1991). Hence the need to focus on learners' strategies in order to get some insight about which tools they actually need.
Beaufils examines the strategies of teenage students exploring a multimedia database on Ancient Greece in order to answer broad cultural questions. His data illustrate the difficulty, for inexpert students, to handle the search, collection and structuring of pieces of information disseminated throughout a large database. Interestingly, students seem aware of the difficulty of the task, and they tend to use rather conservative strategies. For instance, they use familiar and cognitively ’light’ search tools rather than more powerful ones. The reliance on familiar, well understood tools seem to be a constant in novices' behaviour with complex information technologies. Some years ago, Weyer (1982) mentioned that his high-school first-time users of a NoteCards-based electronic history textbook tended to ignore the new and powerful search tools featured in the system. This type of result has been found in other studies of educational hypertext usage. For instance, Britt et al. (1996) observed that students preferred to go back to the table of contents of a hypertext system rather than to use direct document-to-document links, a slower but safer navigation strategy. Beaufils' fine-grained analysis of students' strategies also demonstrates that any feature of the interface has the potential to influence — in either way — the learner's strategy. The study provides a concrete example of how multimedia systems can give way to novel information-based activities. These activities can undoubtedly develop students' informational skills (e.g. document awareness, planning and evaluation abilities). The issue of whether such skills can transfer to lower-tech environments is open for further investigation.
Scherly and colleagues compared the effectiveness of two computer environments for learning virology. One environment (VIROLAB) comprises both a simulation environment and a 96-page hypertext. The other environment comprises only the hypertext section. Twenty eight medical students participated in a 2-hour learning session, using either environment to answer a series of questions about virology. Even though the average gain between pre- and post-test was about the same in the two groups, they found that VIROLAB students were better able to answer those questions which required an understanding of some critical processes, e.g. how a virus develops. This is interpreted as evidence of the value of learning-by-doing as opposed to learning-by-reading a hypertext. In addition Scherly et al. observed that some ‘active search’ tools present in the hypertext (e.g. hyperlinks, glossary, search engine) were seldom used, even though all the participants were categorised as ‘knowledge seekers’, that is, students with an active knowledge construction attitude.
Collaud and colleagues present the results of a research and development study into the pedagogical uses of a multimedia database at the university level. They designed a CD-ROM which was integrated in the pedagogical organisation of an undergraduate psychology course. In designing their system, they attempted to take advantage of the new medium while avoiding some well known problems, e.g. student disorientation, cognitive overhead and task management problems. The design decisions that address those issues may be seen at two levels. First, the use of the CD-ROM was carefully introduced and embedded in a series of pedagogical practices (tutoring, discussion seminars etc.) so that the new tools did not appear as disconnected from students' previous learning experience. Second, the design of the database reflected a concern for explicit structuring, various levels of guidance, and assistance in forming and managing study goals, thus making use of the recent psychological research literature in this area. The preliminary results of the course evaluation showed encouraging results, in that students seemed to cope with the tasks rather well and also performed well in the final examination. Moreover student performance appeared to relate to their actual use of the system, as evidenced by their memory for system commands and interaction procedures.
Local integration has to do with the way information sources are integrated at the level of a single display, a problem close to that of page layout in traditional publishing. The problem is however more complex in hypermedia because many more parameters can vary due to multimodal, dynamic, interactive capacity. One central issue is how to integrate verbal and pictorial information in displays.
There is a general belief that multimedia systems are effective learning tools simply because they include illustrations combined with other sources of information. Merlet reports previous findings which challenge this general and simplistic view. She stresses that comprehension is a complex, multilayered activity. Each source of information present on one display takes some processing resources in order to be perceived and understood. In the case of foreign language learning, the synchronous processing of multiple sources can be overwhelming. As a consequence, pictorial information, if not properly integrated with other sources, can disrupt rather than facilitate comprehension.
Dubois and Vial present an experiment which investigated the effects of different presentation modes on learning Russian words and their French translation. They found that a picture illustrating the meaning of the word is useful only to the extent that it promotes the integration of the word with both its meaning and its phonological representation. An oral comment added to the image promoted learning better than a written comment. However, the results were also function of the type of cue the students received at the time of recall. The integrated image with oral commentary was most effective when the test word was presented orally. The latter result may be interpreted as an instance of a retrieval specificity effect (retrieval is most effective when it occurs in the same context as learning). The practical lesson of this study is that designers should be careful to include only those illustrations that will actually promote the construction of integrated mental representations.
Gyselinck and colleagues examine the effects of illustrations as a means of improving the comprehension of simple explanations in physics. Their experiment shows the facilitative effect of illustrations, especially for answering inferential questions. Moreover, illustrations are most beneficial to students with a higher visuo-spatial capacity. They suggest that multimedia presentation may have different impacts depending on students' characteristics. Presentations that involve too complex text-picture compounds may be detrimental to students with a poorer cognitive capacity.
The papers presented in this Special Issue illustrate the complexity and the diversity of the cognitive processes involved in learning with complex information technology. To put it simply, whereas many believe that powerful computer technologies will make learning more simple, research suggests that it only allows for more complex activities to take place. Whether or not these activities will prove productive in terms of learning depends on a complex interaction between the properties of the device and the learner's cognitive characteristics.
Learning in autonomy with a hypermedia system is a complex activity. Beaufils showed that students benefit a lot from some kind of pre-structuring of the activities, as well as from notetaking, information selection or marking tools that let them draw external representations of intermediate goals, and hence reduce the cognitive load. Scherly and colleagues’ observation that students postpone hypertext search until they have solved the problem also suggests that they try to keep the burden at a manageable level. Both studies also suggest that students are quite reluctant to use novel tools, probably due to the fact that they do not possess adequate ’procedural schemata’ for those tools. The same problems occur at a more local level, when students are confronted by displays that incorporate verbal and graphical information. Students' ability to learn from multimedia information varies as a function of cognitive dimensions, e.g. their level of proficiency in the domain (Merlet) or their working memory capacity (Gyselinck et al.). Modal comple-mentary, or the fact that several sources of information converge towards a single mental representation is a key aspects of multimedia displays (Dubois & Vial).
Together these studies show that the incorporation of information technology in current teaching systems calls for a deep reflection about pedagogical engineering. At the micro-level, pedagogical engineering consists of incorporating psychological and ergonomical considerations into the very design of the system. At an inter-mediate level, pedagogical tasks and activities have to be carefully tailored to the properties of the medium, the characteristics of student thinking and study strategies, and the pedagogical requirements. Finally, at the global level, one has to consider the use of multimedia technology in the context of pedagogical practice, e.g. lecturing, tutoring, and other forms of student-teacher interaction. Becoming a good engineer certainly takes a good deal of practice in real teaching contexts. It may nevertheless benefit from advances in the psychology of complex information processing.
References
Britt, M.A., Rouet, J.-F. & Perfetti, C.A. (1996) Using hypertext to study and reason about historical evidence. In Hypertext and Cognition (eds. J-F. Rouet, J.J. Levonen, A.P. Dillon & R.J. Spiro). pp. 43-72. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
Conklin, J. (1987) Hypertext: an introduction and survey. Computer, 20, 17-41.
Kommers, P.A.M. (1996) Definitions. In Hypermedia Learning Environments (eds. P.A.M. Kommers, S. Grabinger & J.C. Dunlap) pp. 1-11. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.
Mayer, R.E. (1997) Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational Psychologist, 32, 1, 1-19.
McKnight, C., Dillon, A. & Richardson, J. (1993) Hypertext: A psychological perspective. Ellis Horwood, Chichester.
Rouet, J-F., Levonen, J., Dillon, A.P. & Spiro, R.J. (eds.) (1996). Hypertext and Cognition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
Rouet, J-F. & de la Passardière, B. (eds.) (1999) Hypermédia et Apprentisages 4, Actes du quatrième colloque (Université de Poitiers). INRP et EPI, Paris.
Spiro, R.J. & Jehng, J.C. (1990) Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the nonlinear and multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. In Cognition, education and mulrtimedia: Exploring ideas in high technology (eds. D. Nix and R.J. Spiro) pp. 163-205. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
van Oostendorp, H. & de Mul, S. (eds.) (1996) Cognitive aspects of electronic text processing. Ablex Publishing Co, Norwood, NJ.
Weyer, S.A. (1982) The design of a dynamic book for information search. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 17, 87-107.
Wright, P. (1991) Cognitive overheads and prostheses: Some issues in evaluating hypertexts. In Proceedings of the Third ACM Conference on Hypertext (eds. R. Furuta & D. Stotts) pp. 1-12. ACM Press, New York, NY.
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A. Tricot, C. Pierre-Demarcy & R. El Boussarghini, Brittany University for Teachers' Education and the University of High Brittany, France
Email: andre.tricot@bretagne.iufm.fr
This paper examines the issue of help devices for students in hypermedia environments according to the learning context and, more precisely, according to the cognitive processes involved in that situation. The argument is based on a criticism of the level of generality of traditional help systems which are mostly concerned with user-system interaction. Three main types of learning situations are described: learning-by-doing, learning-by-instruction, learning-by-exploring and the main cognitive processes involved in these three situations are explored. From such descriptions, specific types of help devices are discussed and some perspectives relating to the design and evaluation of educational hypermedia applications are suggested.
Keywords: Courseware; Ergonomics; Guided discovery; Help; Hypermedia; Instruction; Secondary; Student-centred
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 2, 102-113
A translated version of a paper based on one selected from Hypermédia et Apprentisages 4, Actes du quatrième colloque (eds. J-F. Rouet et B. de la Passardière). INRP et EPI, Paris.
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S. Merlet, Laboratoire Langage & Cognition, CNRS, Université de Poitiers, France
E-mail: Sylvie.Merlet@mshs.univ-poitiers.fr
The effects of lexical and semantic previews on the comprehension of a computer-presented illustrated dialogue were examined. Based on a multilevel cognitive theory of comprehension, different types of preview were expected to influence specific aspects of the learners’ activity. Thirty French undergraduate students of English as a foreign language were asked to study a computerised illustrated dialogue. A lexical preview decreased the frequency of control actions while listening (e.g. pauses, replays) while the semantic preview improved the quality of information recalled. It is concluded that a fine-grain analysis of language comprehension processes can improve the design of educational multimedia products
Keywords: Control group; Foreign language; Language comprehension; Multimedia; Student-centred; Undergraduate
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 2, 148-156
A translated version of a paper based on one selected from Hypermédia et Apprentisages 4, Actes du quatrième colloque (eds. J-F. Rouet et B. de la Passardière). INRP et EPI, Paris.
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D. Scherly, L. Roux & P. Dillenbourg, Centre Médical Universitaire and TECFA-FPSE, University of Geneva, Switzerland
Email: Daniel.Scherly@medecine.unige.ch
This paper presents a study which evaluates the use and efficiency of two computer learning tools for basic virology. The first, VIROLAB, is a simulation of a biology laboratory in which the learner uses virtual lab facilities to help defective viruses to multiply. The system also includes a hypertext that provides learners with some knowledge on virology. The second tool is the hypertext which has been extracted from VIROLAB and which is now considered as an independent learning environment. This study addressed two specific questions: (1) which of the two tools was the most efficient for knowledge acquisition, and (2) were there any differences in the use of the two hypertexts? Comparison of pre- and post-test scores showed that neither of the two learning tools is better than the other. However, analysis of the navigation paths showed that VIROLAB users dissociated the reading of the integrated hypertext from the problem resolution activities. The implications of this finding for the design of the learning environment are discussed.
Keywords: Empirical; Hypertext; Medical education; Navigation; Problem solving; Simulation; Undergraduate; Virology
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 2, 125-136
A translated version of a paper based on one selected from Hypermédia et Apprentisages 4, Actes du quatrième colloque (eds. J-F. Rouet et B. de la Passardière). INRP et EPI, Paris.
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V. Gyselinck, M-F. Ehrlich, C. Cornoldi, R. de Beni & V. Dubois
Laboratoire de Psychologie Expèrimentale, Universitè Renè Descartes Boulaogne, France and Dipartimento di Psicologia, Universita di Padova, Italy
Email: gyselinck@psycho.univ-paris5.fr
Multimedia systems involve the association of various types of information: verbal information presented visually or auditorily, static or dynamic pictorial information, and sound information. In a cognitive approach, integrating this information involves complex processes constrained by properties of the learner's cognitive system, and especially by the capacity of working memory. This paper reports on an experiment focused on the integration of verbal and pictorial information when students learn a series of physics concepts. The involvement of the visuo-spatial working memory was investigated by means of a dual-task paradigm. Results show that pictorial information enhances the learning process. They also suggest that the visual and the spatial components of visuospatial working memory should be considered. They emphasise the need to consider the limitations in cognitive resources available to the learner.
Keywords: Control group; Multimedia; Physics; Undergraduate
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 2, 166-176
A translated version of a paper based on one selected from Hypermédia et Apprentisages 4, Actes du quatrième colloque (eds. J-F. Rouet et B. de la Passardière). INRP et EPI, Paris.
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M. Dubois & I. Vial
Universitè Pierre Mendës France, Grenoble, France
Email: michel.dubois@upmf-grenoble.fr
Few models describe learner behaviour during the simultaneous processing of several types of information, yet this is the defining characteristic of the use of multimedia tools, which bring together media in different informational formats (fixed or moving images, sound, text). Following studies in cognitive psychology concerning the increase in the ability to form mental images of words, this study was aimed at defining how different multimedia presentation modes affect the learning of foreign language vocabulary (Russian). A statistically significant effect was observed on word memorisation in the different information presentation modes, suggesting better processing when there is co-referencing of the different sources, especially when the encoding and tests modes are the same. In addition to these experimental results, some principles for the design of multimodal learning tools are discussed.
Keywords: Cognitive load; Experiment: Language learning; Multimedia, Process; Russian; Undergraduate
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 2, 157-165
A translated version of a paper based on one selected from Hypermédia et Apprentisages 4, Actes du quatrième colloque (eds. J-F. Rouet et B. de la Passardière). INRP et EPI, Paris.
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G. Collaud, J-L. Gurtner & P-F. Coen, University of Fribourg, Switzerland
E-mail: gerald.collaud@unifr.ch
This paper .reports on an experiment in which a whole semester course in psychology was replaced by a mixed formula consisting of a CD-ROM complemented by a series of seminars and workshops. The CD-ROM was conceived as a collection of hyper-media documents (hypertexts, research data, references, videos and activities) linked together with genuine Netscape facilities. Students were invited to search through these documents for information to answer a questions (called challenges) on the topic. A multiple-choice questionnaire accompanies each challenge in order to foster students' self-evaluation. The seminars, held every other week, served both as forums to discuss each of the topics under the guidance of an expert,. Careful analysis of students' answers to two questionnaires at the beginning and at the end of the course and during interviews, showed that such a formula was generally favourably accepted by a large majority of students, although it elicited anxiety and lead to greater work load than a traditional course. Positive effects were also observed on learning.
Keywords: CD-ROM; Hypermedia; Problem solving; Psychology; Undergraduate; Illuminative evaluation.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 2, 137-147
A translated version of a paper based on one selected from Hypermédia et Apprentisages 4, Actes du quatrième colloque (eds. J-F. Rouet et B. de la Passardière). INRP et EPI, Paris.
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A. Beaufils, Institut National de la Recherche Pédagogique, Montrouge, France
Email: abeaufls@inrp.fr
This paper presents the results of several investigations into the use made by students of a prototype system of help for the exploitation of hypermedia documents. This prototype was derived from a common type of educational CD-ROM in which the presentation of the contents was improved and certain research and note-taking tools added. The evolving, personalised note-taking system interacts constantly with the environment being explored. Beyond the storage of personal notes (clues, personal knowledge of the area), it allows the user to keep the explored sections in mind and ultimately to plan further explorations. It also enables the extraction and structuring of the data retrieved from the body of the database. The role of this system is to facilitate more thorough searches for information which might sometimes require several sessions stretched out over a long time. It could be profitably used in the context of independent student activities.
Keywords: CD-ROM; Empirical; Guided discovery; Hypermedia; Navigation; Secondary
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 2, 114-124
A translated version of a paper based on one selected from Hypermédia et Apprentisages 4, Actes du quatrième colloque (eds. J-F. Rouet et B. de la Passardière). INRP et EPI, Paris.
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M. Weller, Faculty of Technology, The Open University
Email: m.j.weller@open.ac.uk
Artificial Intelligence for Technology (T396) is a distance learning course provided by the Open University of the UK, utilising face-to-face tuition. In 1997 a pilot study computer-mediated communication (CMC) based tutor group was implemented on this course. The tutor group consisted of volunteers based around the UK. The student feedback raises a number of issues, including the need for a distinct function of the tutor group conference, the role and demands on the tutor, and the benefits perceived by students. It is suggested that some issues arise from a conflict of cultures with their own implicit assumptions. The traditional face to face tutorial model is sometimes at variance with the demands of the new CMC based tuition.
Keywords: Attitude; Conferencing; Culture; Distance education; Questionnaire; Tutorial; Undergraduate
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 3, 178-183. Accepted: 1 August 1999
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M. M. Nicol & A. Anderson, Queen Margaret's College, Edinburgh & University of Strathclyde
Email: tony.anderson@ccsun.strath.ac.uk
Whilst a good deal of research literature has been published on using Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) to help teach children with learning disabilities, there are fewer published studies examining the use of CAI with adults with a mild learning disability. We undertook an experiment comparing computer-assisted and teacher-implemented instruction in numeracy with this population, with a third group acting as a control group. All groups were pre-tested on two psychometric tests of numeracy, after which the experimental groups received one half-day per week training in numeracy, with all groups being reassessed after three months and after six months. It was found that overall the three groups improved in their numeracy scores, and that teacher-led and computer groups improved more as a function of time on the intervention than did the control group. The issue of how much teacher support is required when this population uses CAI is discussed, as are some of the strengths and weaknesses of the software used in the study.
Keywords: Adults; Continuing; Control group; Drill & practice; Games; Learning disability; Numeracy
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 3, 184-192. Accepted: 1 August 1999
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T. Buchanan, University of Sunderland
Email: tb99@iname.com
Two studies evaluated the effectiveness of a WWW-based formative assessment package used in undergraduate psychology courses. Students taking on-line multiple-choice tests received instant feedback on areas of weakness and how to address them. In Study 1, students used the package as an integral part of their course syllabus. Level of use correlated with performance in the end-of-course summative assessment. In Study 2, the package was used as an 'optional extra'. Both studies found that students who used the package performed better than those who did not. Such systems may be useful learning tools which students may use to enhance performance.
Keywords: Assessment; Formative; Internet; Multiple-choice; Psychology; Summative; Undergraduate
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 3, 193-200. Accepted: 1 November 1999
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A.E. McFarlane, J.M. Williams & M. Bonnett
Email: A.E.McFarlane@btinternet.com
Multimedia authoring software has a number of features that, given teacher support, should provide conditions that help pupils create material that genuinely reflects their understanding. This paper reviews the ways in which use of this technology may also support improvements in assessment. Drawing on research findings it describes how pupil-produced multimedia documents can reveal aspects of performance that traditional tests may not recognise. If such assessment is to be accepted at the policy level, a shared set of criteria for achievement must be developed in terms of technical manipulation and content exposition. Lines of enquiry for further investigation of multimedia authoring, pupil learning and assessment are proposed.
Keywords: Assessment; Constructivist; Drugs education; Hypermedia; Interview; Primary; Questionnaire; Multimedia authoring
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 3, 201-212. Accepted: 11 November 1999
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M. Anderson and D. Jackson
Email: d.jackson@csc.liv.ac.uk
Network-based learning is now such an important area that it would seem timely to examine progress to date and to draw conclusions regarding the direction of further research. This paper is the result of a survey of computer systems for distributed and distance learning, focusing on projects that help to illustrate the evolution of this important field. An examination such as this is important in its own right as a resource for other researchers wishing to pursue the subject further, but the survey also helps to highlight some of the major trends of past projects and to suggest some of the ways in which progress may be made in the future.
Keywords: Campus; Communication; Distance; Groupware; Mediated; Review; Tutorial
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 3, 213-228. Accepted: 12 December 1999
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E.R. Savelsbergh, T. de Jong & M.G.M. Ferguson-Hessler
E-mail: e.r.savelsbergh@phys.uu.nl
To become proficient problem-solvers, physics students need to form a coherent and flexible understanding of problem situations with which they are confronted. Still, many students have only a limited representation of the problems on which they are working. Therefore, an instructional approach was devised to promote students’ understanding of these problems and to support them in forming associations between problem features and solution methods. The approach was based on using the computer algebra software Mathematica as a tool for problem solving and visualisation. An electrostatics course module was implemented based on this instructional approach, and this module was compared with a usual paper-and-pencil based one. Learning outcomes for both courses were not significantly different. The experimental course was found to impose a high cognitive load on the students. Based on the outcomes, proposals are made for ways in which the course could be improved.
Keywords: Cognitive load; Control group; Interactive learning environment; Physics; Post-secondary; Problem solving; Tutorial; Visualisation
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 3, 229-242. Accepted: 23 January 2000
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S. Hennessy, formerly Open University, UK
Email: sch30@cam.ac.uk
The increasing use of portable computers raises issues about their impact on learning and attitudes to computing. These issues were explored in an evaluation of a weather project undertaken by 48 students aged 13–14 using palmtop computers. Students worked in groups over 3 weeks, collecting and graphing temperature data. Motivation and confidence in using technology increased and learning gains of averages and graph interpretation were observed. The evaluation illustrated the potential power and versatility of portable technology in tackling graphing, and the opportunities they present for student participation. Some pedagogic implications of using portables are considered.
Keywords: Collaboration; Graphing; Mathematics; Observation; Portable; Questionnaire; Secondary
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 3, 243-258. Accepted: 25 January 2000
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V. Benigno & G. Trentin, Istituto Tecnologie Didattiche & Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Genova
Email: trentin@itd.ge.cnr.it
Given the special characteristics of online courses, their quantitative/qualitative evaluation calls for the adoption of specific procedures to assess both the learning process and the participant performance. This paper seeks to shed light on the aspects and issues involved in the evaluation of online courses, focusing on the peculiarities that distinguish such evaluation from that of traditional distance education. Subsequently, a methodological approach will be proposed that was developed and tested during evaluation of online courses for in-service teacher training and for training of staff in small and medium-sized enterprises.
Keywords: Adult; Collaboration; Conferencing; Discourse analysis; Distance learning; Internet; Professional; Questionnaire; Training
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 3, 259-270. Accepted: 11 February 2000
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L. Creanor & A. Littlejohn, Department of Learning & Educational Development, Glasgow Caledonian University & Centre for Academic Practice, University of Strathclyde
Email: l.creanor@gcal.ac.uk
Recent upsurge in emphasis on larger class sizes and work-based learning requires lecturers to be equipped to switch from traditional face-to-face teaching techniques to communicating with students using new technologies. Dialogue is the vital ingredient which underpins the successful learning experience, and staff in HE are facing a challenge in developing the necessary skills to make effective use of the emerging communication tools. These skills can only be acquired through practice, understanding of the pedagogy and awareness of the various options available. The aim of this paper is to explore, through presenting a case study, the potential benefits of cross-institutional collaboration in information and communication technology staff development. Since both the University of Strathclyde and Glasgow Caledonian University were investigating ways of promoting good practice in the development and use of new learning technologies, it seemed prudent to combine forces and share ideas. The paper will examine how attempts were made to bridge the skills gap by enabling academic staff to experience Internet communication from the perspective of both student and teacher.
Keywords: Campus; Case study; Collaboration; Communication; Dialogue; Internet; Post secondary; Staff development
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 3, 271-279. Accepted: 17 March2000
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M. Bannert & P. Reimann, Universität Kobelenz-Landau und Heidelberg
Email: bannert@rhrk.uni-kl.de
According to software producers, modern computer application programs are not only becoming more and more user-friendly but also easier to learn to use. However, the complexity of applications’ software is increasing dramatically and frequent updates of products often require the (re-)learning of program usage. Consequently, for the majority of computer users, a minimum of training is an indispensable prerequisite for the effective use of software
But how should users be supported when learning to use a software product and how should instructions be designed in order to achieve effective software training? To date, only a few psychological studies have investigated these research questions in any systematic fashion. However, various fields of psychology can and should make contributions to this issue, which will not only allow the formulation of recommendations and guidelines for instructional approaches to software training, but also provide significant knowledge concerning theoretical and educational issues beyond software training.
Hence, the objective of this Special Issue is to discuss this new topic of psychological research from a theoretical and methodological perspective based on empirical studies. The focus lies on the learning of application programs and the design of adequate instructional support, and the implications for software training practice. The acquisition of programming languages is not considered.
Most papers emerged from the Symposium ‘Instructional Approaches and Design of Software Training’ which was organised at the EARLI Conference 1999 in Gothenburg, and from the poster session about software training held at the DGP-Conference 1998 in Germany. The selection of original research reports covers a broad spectrum of issues, in which each contribution views the topic from the perspective of computer-based learning and instruction.
Martin-Michiellot and Mendelsohn investigate design recommendations for computer manuals based on the Cognitive Load Theory. In particular, they analyse whether different instruction formats affect learning time and performance due to induced cognitive load. The main result of their study is that learning to use a CAD-package with a so-called juxtaposed or an integrated manual — both presented without a computer — takes about half the time when compared to a conventional manual — presented with a computer –— without any loss in learning performance.
A similar topic is treated by Van der Meij who focuses on captured screen images in software documentation. In his experimental study, which also addressed Cognitive Load Theory, problems related to splitting attention between manual, screen, and input device were investigated when learning the use of software with manuals. As expected, the inclusion of screen images in the software documentation for Windows 95 influenced learning time and learning outcome. Van der Meij proposes a taxonomy for screen images with four crucial design dimensions in order to help designers of software manuals to improve upon the use of screen images and in order to guide further research on this issue.
Dutke and Reimer analyse the design of on-line help-systems to support task-based system-exploration for which two distinct cognitive phases are assumed: schema acquisition and mental model building. The aim of their study was to assess the effects of on-line help formats on learning performance. In two studies using graphics software similar to ‘Paint Brush’ they varied the help format: Operative help, which includes a list of actions which have to be carried out in order to reach the goal, should be best suited for schema acquisition; function-oriented help, which gives the explanation about how the specific function works, should be especially appropriate for mental model building. Experimental results confirmed that learning performance was better when using operative help in the context of solving similar tasks. However, when the type of task changes, users exploring the system with function-oriented help were better.
Reimann and Neubert present an exploratory study in which the use of a variety of information resources (i.e. the user interface and program itself, manuals, on-line help, or examples provided in the manuals) by novice learners was investigated. In particular, they asked how novices make use of the worked-out examples often provided in manuals and during training. Based on earlier research on the self-explanation effect, thinking aloud data from novices obtained when learning to use a spreadsheet program were analysed with respect to examples elaboration and utilisation during problem solving. Important effects of self-explaining comparable to findings in other domains were found.
The aim of Lazonder’s paper is to identify users’ needs for learning web-based information seeking. Searching in the Web is described by a process model including the stages: goal formation, strategy selection, strategy execution, and monitoring. Information search processes of novice and expert users were analysed in a qualitative case study. In particular, their actions and verbalisations were recorded when performing three Web search tasks. Minimal performance differences between novices and experts were identified. The results indicate that users should be instructed in monitoring skills and system knowledge when learning information searching.
Bannert reports on an investigation into the effectiveness and feasibility of individual learners’ support in software training. Text-processing courses in real classroom settings were analysed in a quasi-experimental study using two kinds of user interface. Half of the courses used a conventional software interface, whereas the other half used a training wheels interface in which all irrelevant functions were blocked. In half of the courses all instruction was given by a human tutor whereas the participants in the other half learned with printed self-learning material. Results indicate that participants using the ‘training wheels’ learned significantly faster than those using the ‘standard interface’. However, they did not have better learning outcomes. Students in the ‘self-learning material’ condition learned significantly faster and achieved significantly better learning outcomes than students in the ‘human tutor’ group. No group differences in learner satisfaction occurred.
The training wheels approach was also investigated in Leutner’s study and the paper presents the so-called double-fading support approach (DFS) to software training. Two types of user support when learning a complex software system were faded out gradually during the course: locking software’s functionality and detailed guidance. Two experiments investigated if both fading-out support measures do lead to increased problem solving achievement when practice problems with a CAD system were solved. Results indicate the effectiveness of the DFS-Approach for an deeply structured CAD-menu. As expected, participants working with the initially reduced software outperformed participants from the full functionality software group; additionally, participants of the slowly faded guidance group outperformed participants from the other fading guidance-groups. However, less effectiveness of the DFS-approach was obtained for an icon-based CAD-system. Here, it seems that the two factors of user support over-compensated each other.
Wiedenbeck, Zavala and Nawyn analyse the effects of different practice methods in exploration-based software training. The aim of their study is to understand the effects of different hands-on practice methods by analysing the activities undertaken during training. Three practice methods were varied by using an exercise, an exploration, and a combined training approach for learning Hypercard. Effects of these methods were analysed with respect to learning time and learning activities. The outcomes of the study indicate that participants of the exploration-based method failed to practice and to repeat the basics of the materials and failed to extend their knowledge. The lack of systematic repetition and going beyond the information given may have led to subsequent difficulties in skill acquisition of entirely exploration-based training approaches. The study points out the necessity of conducting process analysis which is often ignored in training studies. In addition, and more important for the topic of this Special Issue, the study demonstrates the limits of entirely exploration-based learning. Most learners were not able to explore the software totally on their own in such a way that they were able to use it effectively. Thus, instructional approaches to software training are nevertheless important measures for software users — despite the increasing usability of modern software products.
This issue concludes with comments by Van Merrienboer who classifies the papers on the basis of a general Instructional Design Approach. His review distinguishes papers mainly concerned with task and content analysis (‘What to teach’) from papers focusing on design and selection of instructional methods (‘How to teach’) and from papers dealing with instructional message design (‘How to present what is taught’). Based on this classification Van Merrienboer points out three recent trends in software training: from narrow function-oriented learning tasks to rich task-oriented learning problems in real-life contexts; from purely procedural description to scaffolding for deep system understanding; and from low-load instruction formats to instructions that induce and support deep information elaboration. Finally, he concludes that software training should no longer be treated as a separate field of instructional research and design, but rather should be integrated in training measures of professional skills.
Finally, we want to thank all our contributors for their co-operation when working on this Special Issue and meeting its deadlines. Also, Jeroen van Merrienboer helped us considerably in the editorial process and with his insightful comments. Furthermore, we wish to thank Bob Lewis, for not only providing us with the opportunity to publish our topic as a Special Issue of JCAL, but also for supporting us throughout the entire process. He and the contributors made this work professionally satisfying — it was really a pleasure for us working with all of them.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 4, 281-283
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Cognitive load while learning with a graphical computer interface
S. Martin-Michiellot & P. Mendelsohn, Technologies de la Formation et de l’Apprentissage, Université de Genève
Email: Silvere.Martin-Michiellot@tecfa.unige.ch
Computer software packages are hard to learn but little is known about how to help new users. A study was made in which 30 learners had to learn the basic commands of a CAD software package using manuals with different formats of presentation of instructions. Ten learners learned using a conventional manual plus a computer, 10 learners learned using a manual with juxtaposed screen images but no computer and 10 learners learned using a manual with integrated screen images but no computer. Each learner was tested with a practical and a written test and the learning time was measured. There was no statistical difference between the groups of learners for the score of the practical and written tests. However, it was found that learners using a manual with juxtaposed or integrated screen images had learned twice as fast as learners using a conventional manual. The discussion questions the use of conventional manuals to learn application software and stress as the key role of the graphical environment in the learning process.
Keywords: Application software; Cognitive load; Computer; Comparative study; Instruction; Interface; Visual manuals; Undergraduate
This paper is one of a selection of papers derived from a symposium at the EARLI conference in 1999 and from a poster session at the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie conference in 1998.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 4, 284-293.
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The role and design of screen images in software documentation
H. van der Meij, Department of Instructional Technology, University of Twente
Email: meij@edte.utwente.nl
Software documentation for the novice user typically must try to achieve at least three goals: to support basic knowledge and skills development; to prevent or support the handling of mistakes, and to support the joint handling of manual, input device and screen. This paper concentrates on the latter goal. Novice users often experience split-attention problem due to the need to (almost) simultaneously attend to different media. Existing research indicates that split-attention problems can be prevented or reduced by the presence of screen images in the manual. Research is yet unclear about the optimal design of these pictures. This study examines three design styles. Forty-eight novice users received one of the three manual based on these styles. The manuals were an introduction to Windows 95. The users of the most successful manual needed 25% less training time and had a 60% better retention. The most important characteristics of the design style of this manual were its use of full screen images (instead of partial ones) and a two-column lay-out in which the instructions and screen images were presented side-by-side in a left-to-right reading order. The discussion focuses on the tension that exists between theory and practice. Special attention is given to the contributions of a taxonomy of screen images and cognitive load theory.
Keywords: Application software; Cognitive load; Screen images; Training; Tutorial; Visual manuals
This paper is one of a selection of papers derived from a symposium at the EARLI conference in 1999 and from a poster session at the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie conference in 1998.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 4, 294-306.
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S. Dutke. & T. Reimer, Freie Universität Berlin and Universität Potsdam
Email: dutke@rhrk.uni-kl.de
A recent trend in application software design is to extend online help systems in order to support exploratory and self-paced learning. Two different information formats, lists of action steps that have to be taken to achieve a goal (operative help) and explanations about how a function works (function-oriented help), were evaluated to assess their effects on learning performance. In two experiments, adult computer novices (N = 60 and N = 20) learned to use experimental graphics software by task-based exploration. After one half of the tasks, the type of tasks changed so that the acquired action schema could no longer be applied. Results indicated that participants who had access to function-oriented help were coping more successfully with the schema change than participants who received operative help. The relevance to the design of software training and online help systems is discussed.
Keywords: Application software; Control group; Exploratory learning; Individual; Mental model; Online help; Schema; Training
This paper is one of a selection of papers derived from a symposium at the EARLI conference in 1999 and from a poster session at the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie conference in 1998.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 4, 307-315.
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P. Reimann & C. Neubert, University of Heidelberg & UBS Bank
Email: peter.reimann@urz.uni-heidelberg.de
This papers describes an exploratory study into the early phase of getting to know end-user software during which users make use of a variety of information resources, including the user interface/program itself, manuals, on-line help, examples provided in the manuals and other sources. In particular, how do novices make use of the worked-out examples often provided in manuals and during training? Building on earlier research on the self-explanation effect, thinking aloud data from 10 participants were analysed to see how examples were studied and how they were used during problem solving. Important effects of self-explaining comparable to findings in other domains were found in this study. For instance, those participants who self-explain with the goal to discover meaning prove to be better problem solvers than those who do not self-explain or who focus more on syntactical aspects of examples.
Keywords: Application software; Discovery learning; Examples; Human–computer interaction; Self-explanation; Spreadsheets; Training
This paper is one of a selection of papers derived from a symposium at the EARLI conference in 1999 and from a poster session at the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie conference in 1998.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 4, 316-325.
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A.W. Lazonder, Department of Instructional Technology, University of Twente
E mail: lazonder@edte.utwente nl
Searching for information on the WWW involves locating a Website and locating information on that site. A recent study implied that novice users’ training needs exclusively relate to locating Websites. The present case study tried to reveal the knowledge and skills that constitute these training needs. Fourteen pre-university students, classified as novice (n = 7) or experienced WWW-user (n = 7) performed three Web search tasks. Their actions and verbalisations were recorded. Between-group comparisons showed minimal performance differences. However, qualitative analyses of novice users’ search performance suggest that their ability to locate Websites could be enhanced by instructing monitoring skills and advanced system knowledge.
Keywords: Application software; Case study; Information literacy; Information systems; Internet; Post-secondary; Qualitative; Training
This paper is one of a selection of papers derived from a symposium at the EARLI conference in 1999 and from a poster session at the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie conference in 1998.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 4, 326-335.
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M. Bannert, University of Landau
Email: bannert@rhrk.uni-kl.de
The role of software training is becoming increasingly important due to the grow-ing variety and complexity of modern software products. This paper focuses on the effectiveness and feasibility of two different kinds of individual learners' support in software training in classroom settings. This research question was investigated by analysing 11 text-processing courses which were conducted on the basis of a quasi-experimental research design. Firstly, the user interface was varied, i.e. half of the courses used the regular standard user interface of the software, whereas the other half used a training wheels interface in which all irrelevant functions were blocked. Secondly, in half of the courses all instruction was given by a human tutor whereas the participants in the other half received written self-learning material. A total of 72 university students majoring in different fields participated. Dependent measures were learning time, learning outcome, and learner satisfaction. Participants from the 'training wheels' condition learned significantly faster compared to the partici-pants of the 'standard user interface' treatment. However, they did not have better learning outcomes, and moreover, they did not accept the training wheels interface. Students in the 'self-learning material' condition learned significantly faster and achieved significantly better learning outcomes than students in the 'human tutor' group, whereas no group differences in learner satisfaction occurred.
Keywords: Applications software; Discourse analysis; Experimental; Individual; Self-learning materials; Training; Training wheels
This paper is one of a selection of papers derived from a symposium at the EARLI conference in 1999 and from a poster session at the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie conference in 1998.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 4, 336-346.
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Detlev Leutner, Erfurt University of Education, Germany
Email: leutner@ipsych.ph-erfurt.de
A new approach to software training is presented, the so-called Double-Fading Support (DFS) approach. According to this approach, which is based on Carroll’s training-wheels idea and on cognitive theories of skill acquisition, two types of user support when learning to use a complex software system — locking the software’s functionality and detailed guidance — are faded out gradually during the training course, so that the learners are able to use the complex software with minimal instructional support at the end of the training. Two 30-hour training experiments with two different CAD software systems and CAD-inexperienced university students were conducted. The results of Experiment 1 with 88 participants indicate the effectiveness of the DFS-approach for CAD software with a deeply structured menu system. Participants working with the initially reduced software outperformed participants of the full software functionality group; additionally, participants of the slowly faded guidance group outperformed participants receiving medium, fast or no fading of guidance at all. Results of Experiment 2 with 120 participants, however, indicate less effectiveness of the DFS-approach for an icon-based CAD software in which most of relevant functions are permanently visible to the user. It seems that the two factors (fading out the locking of software’s functionality and fading out detailed guidance) overcompensate each other.
Keywords: Application software; Empirical evaluation; Help systems; Training; Tutorial; Undergraduate
This paper is one of a selection of papers derived from a symposium at the EARLI conference in 1999 and from a poster session at the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie conference in 1998.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 4, 347-357.
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S. Wiedenbeck, J.A. Zavala. & J. Nawyn, University of Nebraska
Email: susan.wiedenbeck@drexel.edu
The success of exploration-based training is likely to be strongly influenced by what activities the learner undertakes during training. This paper presents a study of the activities undertaken during training by 51 experienced computer users learning to use an application package through exercises, exploration or a combined approach to training. Results suggest that exploration learners practice procedures selectively, fail to consolidate skills through repetition, and do not devise activities which extend their knowledge beyond the scope of the training materials. It is argued that these characteristics may lead to subsequent difficulties in performance.
Keywords: Application software; Exploration; Exercises; Minimalist training; Training; Undergraduate
This paper is one of a selection of papers derived from a symposium at the EARLI conference in 1999 and from a poster session at the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie conference in 1998.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 4, 358-365.
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J.J.G. van Merrienboer, Open University of the Netherlands
Email: jeroen.vanmerrienboer@ou.nl
The contributions to this Special Issue are discussed within an Instructional Design framework. A distinction is made between contributions concerned with task and content analysis, design and selection of instructional methods, and instructional message design. Three major trends indicate a shift in focus:
• from narrow learning tasks for operating the software per se to rich learning tasks for using the software in the context of meaningful task performance;
• from methods that stress procedural descriptions and related exercises to methods that stress guided exploration and scaffolding and so aim at deep system understanding, and
• from low-load presentation formats to formats that also evoke active processing and elaboration of presented information.
These trends indicate the end of software training. It has grown up and is no longer fundamentally different from regular professional skills training.
Keywords: Application software; Individual; Interface; IT-use; Manuals; Screen images; Training
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (2000) 16, 4, 366-375. Invited paper
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