A statistical approach to calculating the proportion of the mark that is due to guessing is presented. The use of this statistical approach using formulae in a spreadsheet to calculate the contribution to the assessment mark from guessing is demonstrated. The relationship between the learning objectives and multiple-choice assessments is considered. It is identified that in some cases maximum performance should not be set at a mark of 100% but that an allowance should be made for the maximum expected performance based on the learning objectives. The use of formulae in a spreadsheet to convert the raw assessment marks into marks or grades corrected for guessing or additionally allowing for the maximum expected mark is demonstrated.

Keywords: Assessment; Grading; Guessing: Multiple-choice questions; Undergraduate

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 1, 2-8

Accepted: 22 June 2002

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An experiment on scientific discovery learning in computer simulations

D.J. Reid*, J. Zhang** & Q. Chen^§*School of Education, The University of Manchester, **Tsinghua University, Beiijng, & ^§Beijing Normal University,

Email: zhangjw@tsinghua.edu.cn

Until recent times, most studies on supporting simulation-based scientific discovery learning adopted the ad hoc strategies-oriented approach. This article was dedicated to make a systematic analysis of the internal conditions of scientific discovery learning to propose a triple scheme for learning support design that includes interpretative support (IS), experimental support (ES), and reflective support (RS). The experiment reported in this article was conducted among 78 eighth graders to examine the effects of the IS and ES using a 2 5 2 between-subjects design. In the result, (1) significant main effects were observed for IS on the post-test of intuitive understanding, flexible application and knowledge integration, (2) no main effect was demonstrated for ES, and (3) there was a marginally significant interactive effect for ES and IS on the intuitive understanding test. A process analysis manifested that the successful learners had designed more well-controlled experiments than those failure ones. Learning supports in simulation environment should be directed toward the three perspectives to invite meaningful, systematic, and reflective discovery learning.

Keywords: discovery learning, computer simulation, learning support, learning environment design

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19,1, 9-20

Accepted: 25 June 2992

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The effect of metacognitive training on the mathematical word problem solving of low achievers

S.K. Teong, National Institute of Education, Singapore

Email: skteong@nie.edu.sg

This study demonstrates how explicit metacognitive training influences the mathematical word problem solving of forty 11 to 12-year-old low achievers in a cognitive-apprenticeship-computer-based environment. Results from the experimental and case study designs revealed that experimental students outperformed control students on ability to solve word problems on their individual written measures; experimental students developed the ability to ascertain when to make metacognitive decisions, and elicit better regulated metacognitive decisions than control students; knowing when and how to use metacognitive strategies is an important determinant to successful word problem solving; and the cognitive-apprenticeship-computer-based environment appears to amplify low achievers’ metacognitive and cognitive behaviours during word problem solving.

Keywords: Metacognitive training, metacognitive behaviour, cognitive behaviour, low achievers, word problem solving

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 1, 46-55

Accepted: 28 June 2002

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School experience course with multimedia in teacher education: an example from Turkey

A. Asan, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey

Email: asan@ktu.edu.tr

This paper describes an interactive and self-paced multimedia tutorial program that provides preservice teachers with a complete range of school system and teaching strategies. The theoretical framework of situated learning has been used to produce the multimedia tutorial. The program allows pre-service teachers to implement approaches appropriate for teaching a K-12 curriculum. The study evaluates the impact of a Multimedia Tutorial Program on preservice teachers’ School Experience course. Two methods of information delivery were investigated: traditional lecturing and multimedia. The results show that using the multimedia tutorial leads to a positive difference in the School Experience course over participants in traditional lecturing. Pre-service teachers who participated in the multimedia group responded positively to a multimedia approach. This study concludes that using multimedia in teacher education enriches pre-service teachers’ learning and provides them an opportunity to collectively view and critique various teaching methods and classroom activities.

Keywords: Multimedia; School Experience; Teacher Education; Turkish Education System; Situated learning

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 1, 21-34

Accepted: 26 June 2002

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Using computer algebra systems in mathematical classrooms

B. Kramarski & C. Hirsch, School of Education, Bar- Ilan University, Israel

Email: Kramab@mail.biu.ac.il

This paper describes a research whose main focus is the use of Computer Algebra Systems (CAS) in mathematical classrooms and the didactical possibilities linked with its use. The possibilities of integrating Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) within the CAS environment is brought into focus. Forty-three Israeli students (mean age 13.3) were assigned to two learning algebraic groups. The first group received explicit meta-cognitive SRL with CAS (CAS+SRL); the second group was exposed to CAS without SRL (CAS). Empirical results from the experimental and case study designs revealed that (CAS+SRL) students outperformed (CAS) students on algebraic thinking and that (CAS+ SRL) students regulated their learning more effectively.

Keywords: Computer Algebra Systems; Self-Regulated Learning; Algebraic Thinking; Comparative Study

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 1, 35-45

Accepted: 24 June 2002

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Web-based collaborative inquiry learning

K-E. Chang, Y-T. Sung, & C-L. Lee, National Taiwan Normal University

Email: kchang@ice.ntnu.edu.tw

This study proposes a Web-based collaborative inquiry learning system. This system uses the World Wide Web (WWW) as a source of knowledge exploration, and provides exploratory problems to guide students to think and explore. A concept map is used as a tool of anchoring and representing knowledge during inquiry process. In the process of learning, learners are allowed to exchange the evidence they have collected, their personal opinions, and the concept maps that they have built. In order to effectively integrate the inquiry learning, collaborative learning, and concept map in the system, this study proposes a collaborative inquiry learning model and related learning activities. Two studies were constructed based on the collaborative inquiry learning model to investigate students’ learning processes in the collaborative inquiry learning on the Web.

Keywords: Web-based learning, collaborative learning, inquiry learning, concept map.

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 1, 56-69

Accepted: 28 June 2002

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Net-based collaborative learning: factors beyond technology

A. Hron & H.F. Friedrich, Knowledge Media Research Center (KMRC), Tübingen, Germany

Email: a.hron@iwm-kmrc.de

Net-based collaborative learning has a large potential for knowledge acquisition. However, it has different characteristics compared with conventional learning scenarios; especially with respect to the social communication situation, message exchange, cognitive load and participation of the learners. To cope with possible problems resulting from these characteristics suitable instructional means have to be considered, like collaborative learning methods, on-line moderation, appropriate learning tasks or computer-based visualisation tools.

Keywords: Collaborative learning, Net-based learning environments, Collaborative learning methods, Online-moderation, Learning tasks, Visualisation tools.

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 1, 70-70

Accepted: 17 September 2002

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Year 4 Pupils' Recall of an 'Interactive Storybook' on CD ROM

J. Trushell, A. Maitland & C. Burrell, University of East London & Essex County Youth Service

Email: J.M.Trushell@uel.ac.uk

This small-scale study compares two groups of Year 4 — eight/nine year-old — pupils either reading or playing an 'interactive storybook'. The study considered pupils' recall of propositions, which formed the story setting and episodes, and of micro-propositions and characters' names, and pupils' responses to inferential items derived from the 'interactive storybook'. The study indicates that, whether reading or playing, pupils' recall of the story setting was sound, but pupils who had read the 'interactive storybook' demonstrated greater recall of the story event structure than those who had engaged in interactive picture-play. Pupils who had played the 'interactive storybook' demonstrated significantly greater recall of micro-propositions and names.

Keywords: CD-ROM; Collaboration; Empirical; Primary; Literacy

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 1, 80-89

Accepted: 20 September 2002

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Bootstrapping in a language learning environment

D.Wible, C-H. Kuo, N-L. Tsao, A. Liu & H-L. Lin, Tamkang University, Taipei, Taiwan

Email: dwible@mail.tku.edu.tw

This paper addresses a fundamental dilemma in the design of intelligent language learning environments: the more freedom a system offers to learners in the use of the target language, the more unwieldy the data is which the learners produce and the less able the system is to support inferences about learners from that data. It is shown how in a platform where learners and teachers interact, the teachers’ feedback which is archived in the system and indexed to the learners’ target language production can constitute affordances that support a process of bootstrapping from raw language output to potential insights into the learners’ interlanguage and gaps in their grasp of the target language. We illustrate our approach with three types of learner errors uncovered in the corpus of learner English through this bootstrapping.

Keywords: Affordance; Bootstrapping; CALL; Corpus; Interlanguage; Knowledge-based; Secondary; Undergraduate; World-wide web

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 1, 90-102

Accepted: 26 August 2002

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The effects of case libraries on problem solving

J. Hernandez-Serrano & D.H. Jonassen, University of Puerto Rico & University of Missouri

Email: Jonassen@missouri.edu

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of providing access to a case library of related stories while undergraduates solved ill-structured problems. While solving complex food product development problems, the experimental group accessed experts’ stories of similar, previously solved problems; the comparable group accessed fact sheets (expository representation of stories’ content); and the control group accessed text selected at random from a textbook dealing with issues unrelated to the stories. On multiple-choice questions assessing processes related to problem solving (prediction, inferences, explanations, etc.), experimental students out-performed the comparable and control groups. Performance on short-answer questions also assessing problem-related skills was not significantly different, in part because of test fatigue. Analysis of interviews identified a number of factors that students used in deciding how to apply their study strategies, including causal factors, grounding phenomenon, grounding in context, and outcomes.

Keywords: Case-based reasoning; Case libraries; Modelling; Problem solving; Post-secondary

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 1, 103-114

Accepted: 31 August 2002

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Exploring the mechanisms through which computers contribute to learning

I. Karasavvidis, J.M. Pieters & T. Plomp, University of Crete & University of Twente

Email: ikaras@edc.uoc.gr

Even though it has been established that the incorporation of computers into the teaching and learning process enhances student performance, the underlying mechanisms through which this is accomplished have been largely unexplored. The aim of the present study is to shed light on this issue. Two groups of ten secondary school students were tutored by their geography teacher in how to solve correlational problems. Students in the one group used paper and pencil while students in the other group used a computer spreadsheet. All tutorials were videotaped, transcribed verbatim, and subsequently all transcripts were segmented and coded. The mean frequencies for teacher and student behaviours between the two conditions were then compared. Results indicated that teacher behaviour in the two conditions differed in terms of error feedback, factual and conceptual questions asked, regulation of students, and task management. Regarding student behaviours, the findings showed that the two conditions differed in terms of task engagement, goal setting, and explanations given. On the basis of these findings the issue of mechanisms is discussed and three main implications for the teaching and learning practice are drawn.

Keywords: Correlational reasoning; Discourse analysis; Problem solving; Secondary; Spreadsheet; Tutorial; Quantitative

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 1, 115-128

Accepted: 13 September 2002

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ICT skills learning strategies and histories of trainee teachers

L. Taylor, Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, UK.

Email: ejt38@cam.ac.uk

As yet, there is only a small volume of research on how trainee teachers develop their personal ICT skills. This paper reports the findings of a one-year action research study which explored in detail the processes by which a cohort of postgraduate teacher trainees learned these skills. Learning histories before the course were found to be complex and varied. Trainees reported that they consciously drew on a repertoire of learning strategies whilst developing their skills, and a set of factors including previous experience, match of learning opportunities with preferences and software attributes affected a successful learning outcome. An initial model of the learning process was completely revised to reflect the findings. Implications of this research for those working with trainees or other adults who are developing their ICT skills are suggested

Keywords: Case study; Individual; Interview; IT-use; Postgraduate; Software; Teachers

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 1, 129-140

Accepted: 19 October 2002

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Vol. 19, No. 2, June 2003

Special Issue: Children and new technology

Guest Editorial: Children and new technology

R. Joiner, D.E.B. Stanton & R. Luckin, Universities of Bath, Nottingham and Sussex

Email: pssrj@bath.ac.uk

Until recently desktop computers were the only computational technology for supporting learning and teaching and traditional computer software and hardware was designed with only one user in mind, multiple users had to share a mouse and control over one cursor on the screen. However, in HCI research there has been a general move towards, and much support for, the development of tangible and mobile interfaces to facilitate computer use. Many of these new technologies are being used to support children’s learning. There are digital toys, specialised computational devices and a wide variety of new interaction modes. These new computational devices are part of a larger movement based on Norman’s (1998) ideas on invisible computing, ubiquitous computing (Weiser, 1991) and tangible interfaces (Ishii & Ullmer, 1997), in which the technology blends into the environment and is not necessarily visible. Funding agencies have not been slow to see this change and a number of European and USA funding programmes have been initiated to investigate the use and design of this new digital technology for supporting learning. For example the European Commission funded a number of the projects reported here under the Experimental School Environment theme, which focussed on early learning, typically children aged 4-8 years. Themes included toys and games for learning, learning through story-telling and drama and augmented learning environments. This Special Issue of JCAL brings together a selection of papers by leading researchers in the field

The first two papers investigate young (age 6 years and under) children’s interactions with Information and Communication Technology (ICT) from the standard desktop PC to digital toys. Plowman & Stephen review the literature about the ways in which computational technologies are used in both formal and informal pre-school settings. The review addresses the debate over the value and desirability of using computers for young children. They investigate the relationship of these technologies to a media environment that also includes variety other formats including television and books and stress the complexities of the quality evaluation process that faces parents and teachers seeking to select the most appropriate resource for particular contexts and/or learners. This paper also highlights the problems that ensue from the inadequate or absent pedagogical models used in the design of pre-school computer resources.

Luckin et al. report a study that investigates young children’s use of an interactive digital toy technology. The toys are cuddly cartoon characters with embedded sensors that can be squeezed to invoke spoken feedback. The toys can be played with on their own or connected to a computer. When connected to a PC running compatible educational software the cuddly toys interact with the on-screen cartoon characters and offer children hints and tips about how to use the software successfully. Luckin et al., conclude that these toys, as they stand, are not very effective collaborative partners because of their limited repertoire. However the technology has potential. The children can master multiple interfaces of the toy and the screen and the presence of the toy can increase the amount of verbal communication that occurs between child and peer, child and parent or child and teacher/researcher. The cuddly interface can offer an advantage and the potential for fun interfaces might address both the affective and the effective dimensions of learners’ interaction.

Four papers examine the use of tangible interfaces in schools. Fusai et al. in their paper investigate the use of POGO. POGO (funded by the European ESE research programme) is a set of distributed tools that allow children to create stories by connecting the physical and the virtual worlds. Fusai et al. evaluated POGO and found that the tools supported the social nature of narrative construction and transformed the activity into a creative, productive and stimulating experience. Creating a rich sensorial interaction where the physical and affective elements of children’s realities were explored, analysed, decomposed and recombined in new and exciting ways.

Under the same European initiative, Lingnau et al. report an study of a Computer-integrated-Classroom (CiC) which is a classroom that is equipped with specialist software and hardware. Lingnua et al. describe a study where the children in the CiC use a WACOM interactive tablet to interact around a shared workspace using a specific software tool. This tool introduces a new method of teaching reading and writing. Lingnua et al., report that the children quickly became familiar with the system and working co-operatively with it. They also report findings that show that children who used this system improved their spelling.

Ryokai et al. report a study with an embodied conversational agent called ‘Sam’. Sam is presented to children invited to play at a toy castle though a projection screen. It appears as though Sam is also playing with the toy castle and taking turns to move toy characters and tell stories about their adventures. Sam was designed to tell stories collaboratively with children. Sam tells stories that are developmentally more advanced than the child’s stories and in doing so models narrative skills important for development. At the start, Sam greets the child and starts to tell the story by moving a virtual figurine around the castle. Sam then asks the child to tell a story and the child tells a story by moving the real figurine around the castle. Sam watches the child and prompts and asks questions such as what happened next. Rykoai et al. found that children who played with the virtual peer told stories that more closely resembled the stories narrated by Sam. Children used more quoted speech and temporal and spatial expression. Also they listened carefully to Sam assisting him and suggesting improvements.

Think tags are an example of wearable computing. They are small computational devices about the size of a name badge that have been used to involve people in participatory simulations (Collella, 2001). Andrews et al. report a study evaluating a dental hygiene participatory simulation. Teeth decay caused by the accumulation of sugar is a very difficult process for young children to understand. Participating in the dental hygiene simulation allows children to work with digital manipulatives that provide rich personal experience and rapid feedback. They can experience improving or decaying dental health without any of the adverse effects. Andrews et al. found that the program was effective and the children engaged with the task very enthusiastically.

The final three papers report studies that have investigated the use of single display groupware which allows two or more co-located users to interact with a computer system simultaneously whilst feedback is provided via a single display screen. Scott et al. in their paper report two studies evaluating a single display groupware game. In their first study they compared a paper-based version, a computer version with a single shared mouse and a computer version with multiple mice. Children exhibited more off-task behaviour in the one mouse setting whereas they behaved concurrently and preferred the two mouse version. In the second study, Scott et al. compared a shared display, side by side display and separated displays. Children with separate displays sometimes found it hard to reach an agreement. Children rated the game easier in the shared display Scott et al. conclude that children appreciate technology that supports concurrent activity. Forcing children to share one input device contributes to off-task behaviour and boredom.

In a classroom-based study Stanton & Neale investigated the process of collaboration when pairs of children were asked to recreate a poem in pictorial format using either one mouse or two mice. An in-depth qualitative examination of interaction highlighted differences in working styles between conditions. When children shared a mouse they demonstrated varied behaviours ranging from highly collaboratively work to extreme domination by one partner. Pairs in the two-mouse condition would often divide the task up and work in parallel with little reciprocity and little co-elaboration. Having multiple mice changed the interaction. There was little co-construction of ideas, but equally there was less opportunity to dominate. Stanton & Neale conclude by discussing classroom-based decisions about computer use based on their findings.

Druin et al. report a similar finding in their paper. They introduced a digital library interface where two children could navigate with multiple mice to access multimedia information concerning animals. The paper describes the differences in children's collaborative behaviour and dialogue when using two different versions of single display groupware to search for animals in the digital library. Half the children used a structured condition where they had to ‘confirm’ their collaborative activities. The other half used the condition that allowed ‘independent’ collaboration. Druin et al. found that there was no clear condition that best supported collaboration. The structured condition supported more focussed and accurate search results. It also led to more discussion of shared goal. Children in the independent condition talked more about strategy and more discussion of the search process. Druin et al. conclude that there is no clear cut better interface. Each interface had its strengths, which educators can use to support the appropriate learning objectives.

All the papers in the special issue report research that shows the potential of new digital technology in supporting children’s learning both in formal and informal settings. However, there is clear evidence within them that the fulfilment of this potential is no easy matter. Success requires careful attention to the pedagogical framework that can underpin the design of such technologies and sensitivity to the affordances of the particular learning context of use and the requirements of the tasks.

References

Collella, V. (2001) Participatory Stimulations: building collaborative understanding through interactive dynamic modelling. In Carrying forward the conversation(CSCL2) (eds. T. Koschmann, R. Hall & N. Miyake) pp. 357-391. Lawrence Erlbaum, London.

Ishii, H. & Ullmer, B. (1997) Tangible Bits: towards seamless interfaces between people bits and atoms. In Proceedings of CHI’97. (ed. S. Pemberton). pp. 234-241. ACM Press, New York.

Norman, D. (1998) The invisible Computing. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

Weiser, M. (1991) The computer for the 21^st Century. Scientific American, (Sept. 1991), pp. 94-104.

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 2, 145-148

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A ‘benign addition’? Research on ICT and pre-school children

L. Plowman & C. Stephen, Institute of Education, University of Stirling

Email: lydia.plowman@stir.ac.uk

This paper reviews the international research evidence on the ways in which information and communication technologies (ICT) are used in both formal and informal pre-school settings. The review addresses the debate over the value and desirability of young children using computers and computational toys; the relationship of these technologies to a media environment which encompasses television, video, books and magazines; the literacies involved in using these media; and interface design and interactivity.

Keywords: Implementation; Interface; ICT; Literacy; Literature review; Media; Multimedia; Policy; Pre-school

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 2, 149-164

Accepted 15 January 2003

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The effects of multiple mice on children’s talk and interaction

D.E.B. Stanton & H.R. Neale, School of Computer Science, University of Nottingham

Email: des@cs.nott.ac.uk

A classroom-based evaluation study examined the process of children’s collaboration when using one or two mice at a desktop computer. Pairs of children worked together to re-create a poem in pictorial format. In-depth qualitative examination of interaction using ‘collaboration networks’ highlighted differences in working styles between conditions. Children using two mice divided up their task, worked in parallel, and showed limited reciprocity and elaboration of ideas. Children sharing one mouse demonstrated varied behaviours ranging from highly collaboratively work to extreme domination by one partner. The implications of these results for the organisation of tasks are discussed.

Keywords: Collaboration; Creativity; Groupware; Interface; Primary; Process; Qualitative

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 2, 229-238

Accepted 15 January 2003

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Children’s interactions with interactive toy technology

R. Luckin, D. Connolly, L. Plowman & S. Airey, Universities of Sussex and Stirling

Email: rosel@cogs.susx.ac.uk

Digital toys offer the opportunity to explore software scaffolding through tangible interfaces that are not bound to the desktop computer. This paper describes the empirical work completed by the CACHET (Computers and Children’s Electronic Toys) project team investigating young children’s use of interactive toy technology. The interactive toys in question are plush and cuddly cartoon characters with embedded sensors that can be squeezed to evoke spoken feedback from the toy. In addition to playing with the toy as it stands, the toy can be linked to a desktop PC with compatible software using a wireless radio connection. Once this connection is made the toy offers hints and tips to the children as they play with the accompanying software games. If the toy is absent, the same hints and tips are available through an on-screen animated icon of the toy’s cartoon character. The toys as they stand are not impressive as collaborative learning partners, as their help repertoire is inadequate and even inappropriate. However, the technology has potential: children can master the multiple interfaces of toy and screen and, when the task requires it and the help provided is appropriate, they will both seek and use it. In particular, the cuddly interface experience can offer an advantage and the potential for fun interfaces that might address both the affective and the effective dimensions of learners’ interactions.

Keywords: Constructivist; Digital Toys; Empirical; IT-use; Preschool; Primary

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 2, 165-176

Accepted 15 January 2003

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Computer supported collaborative writing in an early learning classroom

A. Lingnau, H.U. Hoppe & G. Mannhaupt, Gerhard Mercator University, Duisburg, and the University of Erfurt, Germany

Email: lingnau@informatik.uni-duisburg.de

This paper describes a collaborative experiment in an early learners’ classroom, equipped with special software and hardware to support the acquisition of initial reading and writing skills. This ‘Computer-integrated Classroom’ originated from the EU project NIMIS. Here, a new method to teach ‘reading through writing’ is supported by a specific software tool (T³) in the general framework of the classroom environment. Particularly, a collaborative writing task facilitated by a shared workspace system has been evaluated with a group of first graders using the T³ application. The speciality of this experiment lies in the study of domain-specific collaboration in a rich real world learning setting.

Keywords: Collaboration; Empirical; Literacy; Primary; Synchronous; Writing

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 2, 186-194

Accepted 15 January 2003

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Media composition and narrative performance at school

C. Fusai, B. Saudelli, P. Marti, F. Decortis & A. Rizzo, Universities of Siena & Liège

Email: marti@media.unisi.it

POGO is a distributed learning environment that allows children to create stories by connecting physical and virtual worlds. The environment is composed of several interactive tools that children use to compose, edit and perform stories. Together with teachers, five pedagogical objectives were defined as goals to be achieved in narrative. The pedagogical objectives drove the entire POGO design process and constituted a solid reference for the different evaluations undertaken during the project. This paper, after a brief introduction and a presentation of the POGO world, illustrates how the interaction with the POGO Tools supports the fulfilment of the pedagogical objectives.

Keywords: Audio; Constructivist; Distributed; Ethnographic; IT-use; Mediated; Primary; Video

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 2, 177-185

Accepted 15 January 2003

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Understanding children’s collaborative interactions in shared environments

S.D. Scott, R.L. Mandryk & K.M. Inkpen, Departments of Computer Science, Universities of Calgary, Simon Fraser and Dalhousie

Email: sdscott@cpsc.ucalgary.ca

Traditional computer technology offers limited support for face-to-face, synchronous collaboration. Consequently, children who wish to collaborate while using computers must adapt their interactions to the single-user paradigm of most personal computers. Recent technological advances have enabled the development of co-located groupware systems offering support for concurrent, multi–user interactions around a shared display. These systems provide a unique collaboration environment in which users share both the physical and the virtual workspace. This paper examines how such technology impacts children’s collaboration. Findings from this research show that when concurrent, multi–user interaction is supported on a shared display, children exhibit collaborative behaviour similar to their interactions during paper-based activities. The findings also suggest strengths and weaknesses of various mechanisms for supporting synchronous interactions that have implications for the design of computer systems to support children’s face-to-face collaboration.

Keywords: Collaboration; Face-to-face; Groupware; Interface; IT-use; Primary; Qualitative; Quantitative; Satisfaction; Secondary; Synchronous

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 2, 220-228

Accepted 15 January 2003

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Concept development for kindergarten children through a health simulation

G. Andrews, E. Woodruff, K.A. MacKinnon & S. Yoon, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto

Email: gsandrews@oise.utoronto.ca

According to many dental professionals, the decay process resulting from the accumulation of sugar on teeth is a very difficult concept for young children to learn. Playing the dental hygiene game with Thinking Tags not only brings context into the classroom, but also allows children to work with digital manipulatives that provide rich personal experiences and instant feedback. Instead of watching a demonstration of the accumulation of sugars on a computer screen, or being told about dental health, this simulation allows pre-school children to experience improving or decaying dental health without any real adverse health effects. Small, wearable, microprocessor-driven Tags were brought into the kindergarten classroom to simulate the decay process, providing information about sugars in foods and creating a discussion about teeth. Preliminary analyses suggest that this program was effective and enthusiastically received by this age group.

Keywords: Collaboration; Dialogue; Discourse analysis; Pre-school; Simulation; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 2, 209-219

Accepted 15 January 2003

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Virtual peers as partners in storytelling and literacy learning

K. Ryokai, C. Vaucelle & J. Cassell, MIT Media Laboratory

Email: kimiko@media.mit.edu

Literacy learning — learning how to read and write — begins long before children enter school. One of the key skills to reading and writing is the ability to represent thoughts symbolically and share them in language with an audience who may not necessarily share the same temporal and spatial context. Children learn and practice these important language skills everyday, telling stories with the peers and adults around them. In particular, storytelling in the context of peer collaboration provides a key environment for children to learn language skills important for literacy. In light of this, an embodied conversational agent, Sam, who tells stories collaboratively with children was designed. Sam looks like a peer for pre-school children, but tells stories in a developmentally advanced way, modelling narrative skills important for literacy. Results demonstrated that children who played with the virtual peer told stories that more closely resembled the virtual peer’s linguistically advanced stories: using more quoted speech and temporal and spatial expressions. In addition, children listened to Sam’s stories carefully, assisting her and suggesting improvements. The potential benefits of having technology play a social role in young children’s literacy learning is discussed.

Keywords: Collaboration; Empirical; Literacy; Pre-school; Storytelling; Virtual peer

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 2, 195-208

Accepted 15 January 2003

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A collaborative digital library for children

A. Druin, G. Revelle, B.B. Bederson, J.P. Hourcade, A. Farber, J. Lee, D. Campbell, Human–Computer Interaction Laboratory, University of Maryland

Email: allisond@umiacs.umd.edu

Over the last three years, a digital library interface has been developed where two children can collaborate using multiple mice on a single computer to access multimedia information concerning animals. This technology, SearchKids, supports past work in copresent collaborative zoomable interfaces for young children. This paper describes the differences in children’s collaborative behaviour and dialogue when using two different software conditions to search for animals in the digital library. In this study, half the children had to ‘confirm’ their collaborative activities (e.g. both children had to click on a given area to move to that area). The other half used an ‘independent’ collaboration technique (e.g. just one mouse click allowed the pair to move to that area). The participants in this study were 98 second and third grade children (ages 7–9 – year-old) from a suburban public elementary school in Prince George’s County, Maryland. The results of the study show distinct differences between conditions in how children discussed their shared goals, collaborative tasks, and what outcomes they had in successfully finding multimedia information in the digital library.

Keywords: Change; Collaboration; Information systems; IT-use; Navigation; Primary; Qualitative

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 2, 239-248

Accepted 15 January 2003

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Vol. 19, No. 3, September 2003

Guest editorial: Wireless and Mobile Technology in Education

H.U. Hoppe¹, R. Joiner², M. Milrad³ & M. Sharples⁴

1 University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany, 2 University of Bath, UK.,
3 Växjö University, Sweden, 4 University of Birmingham, UK.

Correspondence: Richard Joiner, Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY Email: r.joiner@bath.ac.uk

The use of information technology in education and training has undergone several paradigm shifts over the last three decades. Very recently the notions of e-learning (learning supported by digital electronic tools and media) and m-learning (e-learning using mobile devices and wireless transmission) have emerged. These terms are often associated with a simplistic understanding of facilitating learning by delivering learning content. Content delivery using mobile devices has had some successes, for example the BBC’s ‘Bitesized revision’ materials delivered via SMS to mobile phones. The learning was facilitated by delivering content to students — however, it was structured to encourage students to discuss the content. Other content-led m-learning possibilities include ‘just-in-time’ training in specific skills (such as how to operate a machine). So content delivery to mobile devices may well have a useful place in m-learning, however, there is an imperative to move from a view of e- and m-learning as solely delivery mechanisms for content. In this view, the learner is just a special type of customer and the learning content is another type of e-commerce product. This simplistic view ignores the fact that modern education and pedagogy, irrespective of different background theories and schools of thought, converge in their high valuation of active, productive, creative and collaborative learning methods much beyond the ‘absorption’ of codified information.

Handheld devices are emerging as one of the most promising technologies for supporting learning and particularly collaborative learning scenarios. These technologies offer the possibility of moving away from the stand-alone computer, thus allowing interaction with several devices and making information accessible through a wireless connection to a server. These technologies offer new opportunities for individuals who require mobile computer solutions that other devices cannot provide. Thus, many researchers, as well as academic and industrial practitioners, are currently exploring the potential of mobile and wireless devices for supporting learning. The challenges are manifold: adapting and appropriating the technology for learning in a way consistent with learning goals and principles; the setting up and testing of prototypical applications and scenarios; the development of specific software tools and architectures; among others.

The underlying understanding of the nature of learning and learning processes has a decisive impact also on expectations of the design and the use of new mobile and wireless technologies in education. For the reductionist, delivery-oriented view of m-learning, the goal is to optimise the quality of service, e.g. in terms of availability across time and space or in terms of multimedia support. Of course, improvements on these scales can also be of interest for using the technology with a distinct orientation.

If these new technologies are used to support active and/or collaborative forms of learning, the expected gain or added value is typically defined quite differently: handheld computing devices allow for exploratory activities not bound to a special location, for example field trips, without losing the potential of taking electronic notes and retrieving information of various types. Such notes, ranging from data collections and digital images to handwritten annotations, can be easily exchanged and downloaded. If combined with wireless transmission, these activities can be continuously monitored and coordinated between places. But even in classrooms and training settings with more or less fixed locations, the use of mobile and wireless technologies may lead to substantial changes as small handheld or embedded devices are no longer dominating the interaction in the way that an explicit computer does. This can help us to move the technology to the background and to set the focus more on interpersonal relations and on the task at hand.

Such an understanding of the role of technology differs significantly from earlier suggestions to conceive computers as dialogue partners. We see this new orientation as a consequence of lessons learned from the limited success of past technology-centred approaches. A criticism of such earlier approaches to learning does indeed not exclude the use of the newest technology in the most creative and innovative ways. The point is that the learning environment, including such aspects as the roles of learners and teachers, types of activities and physical settings, should not be adapted to the available technology but vice versa. The technology should be designed for and adapted to the learning needs with the hope that better technology should adapt and serve better.

This Special Issue of JCAL grew out of the first IEEE workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education (WMTE) that took place at Växjö University, Sweden in August 2002. This event was an effort to take up the challenges and to bring together an international community in the area. The best papers from this workshop were selected for publication in this Special Issue with the addition of a survey of the research area by Jeremy Roschelle. This survey reviews three examples of connected handheld computers in education: classroom response systems; participatory simulations and collaborative data gathering. He concludes that handheld educational applications have an overcomplicated view of technology and a simplistic view of the social practices surrounding these applications. Social practices that are critical to the success of the application. three examples of connected handheld computers in education: classroom response systems; participatory simulations and collaborative data gathering. He concludes that handheld educational applications take an overcomplicated view of technology and a simplistic view of the social practices surrounding these applications in particular the social practices that are critical to the success of the application. The papers in this Special Issue reinforce that conclusion

The remaining papers can be grouped roughly into three themes. The first set of papers deals with the nature of collaborative activity; how it supports or inhibits learning and the implications for the design of wireless mobile technology for learning. The second set reports studies of innovative uses of wireless and mobile technologies for learning. The final set of papers reports innovative developments in wireless and mobile technologies for learning.

In the first set of papers, Johan Lundin and Maria Magnusson discuss the move towards more communication-intense organisations and how to support work-based learning in a context where most workers are distributed and mobile. They report an observational study of a customer relations team. They distinguish four types of collaborative learning in this team: walking into collaborative learning; travelling to meetings; articulating practice and sharing without articulation. A second paper by Chris DiGiano and colleagues discusses the need, in designing wireless and mobile technology for learning, to better understand the patterns of classroom activity that support learning. They propose collaborative design patterns to describe common learning situations and use four classroom scenarios to describe eight patterns.

The second part of the Issue contains papers that report innovative uses of existing wireless and mobile technologies for learning. Sarah Davies draws on four years of observations of classes using two early prototypes of a classroom response system. She discusses how these prototype systems indicated to the students their level of understanding relative to their peers and how they had a dramatic impact on student engagement, increasing interaction between students and between the students and the teacher.

Sherry Hsi developed a mobile learning system for improving and transforming user experiences in a activity museum. She interviewed users of the electronic guidebook and several recurring themes emerged. The users reported that the handheld device contributed to a sense of isolation, both from less social interaction with others and from interference in playing with the exhibits. They also wanted to bridge real-place and virtual contexts by engaging the handheld as an integral part of the exhibit.

Ole Smørdal & Judith Gregory report on a project exploring how wireless and mobile technologies may be useful in medical education and clinical practice, particular in accessing web-based information when required. The students were given PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) which provided access to medical information both online and offline. The authors report that the students did not use the PDA for information gathering, but they did use it for communication, especially for social purposes. The authors conclude that the design and development of mobile and wireless technologies requires a socio-historical conceptualisation of the information and communication infrastructure in relation to the social and technical networks.

Pauliina Seppälä & Harri Alamäki report their experience of using wireless and mobile technology for teacher training. They carried out a pilot study with some trainee teachers who were lent some mobile communicators and some digital cameras. The idea was that the teachers and students could discuss their teaching through the mobile devices and use digital cameras as a means of supporting that discussion. They could also upload material using the mobile device and construct their own digital portfolio. The authors report that the students liked the convenience, immediacy and expediency of the mobile technology. The supervising teachers were all very positive about using the mobile technology and particularly liked the flexibility it brought to their work. The authors conclude that mobile technology enables students’ experience and the joy of learning.

The final set of papers reports innovative developments in wireless and mobile technologies for learning. The first paper, by Chih-Yuh Chang and colleagues, introduces four classes of mobile learning. They discuss the design, implementation and test trial of a mobile outdoor group learning model. The model outlines the tools provided for both the teacher and the student. Yuh-Shyan Chen and colleagues developed a mobile learning system that scaffolded students’ learning about bird watching. The bird watching system provided an outdoor mobile learning system which was one of four classes of mobile learning discussed by Chang and colleagues. Chen and colleagues conducted a formative evaluation comparing the bird watching system with a guide book. The results were very encouraging and they found that the students using the bird watching system gained more than those students who had only used the guide book.

Harri Ketamo developed xTask, an adaptive learning environment, and evaluated its usability. The system could be accessed by PCs or mobile devices. He studied workgroups, who were all given a mobile device for use during the course. The groups were asked to accomplish a number of tasks. After the course the students were interviewed about the usefulness of xTask. Ketamo reports that the students found the mobile devices useful when used for structuring documents and for providing comments on other students’ writing. The students all felt that the mobile devices they were equipped with were not ready to be the only platform for studying.

The final two papers discuss the use of new wireless mobile technology in the classroom context. Tzu-Chien Liu and colleagues built a Wireless technology Enhanced Classroom that supported everyday activities unobtrusively and seamlessly in a classroom context. They integrated a wireless LAN, wireless mobile learning devices, an electronic whiteboard, an interactive classroom server, a resource and class management server. Niels Pinkwart and colleagues report three applications and collaboration scenarios for extending co-constructive modelling and discussion environments with wireless mobile devices.

This combination of innovation and practical use coupled with evaluation is certainly the right blend for our new field. It is essential to remember that the introduction of new technological tools takes place in an existing social environment having their patterns of interaction, their own culture. Hence, these new tools should be interpreted and used accordingly, but they can also have a major impact in transforming those cultures and practices. The mediation of mobile and wireless technologies and applications challenges traditional distinctions made between ‘new learning environments’. They can take place anywhere/anytime and challenge the notion of learning only in the classroom. It has the potential to generate new learning and teaching activities and opportunities. With this Special Issue we hope to contribute to forming a productive and innovative, open and international community which does not only bring forth advancements in science and technology but also contributes to improving practice for better learning.

Editor’s note:

In view of the many new devices, terms and acronyms used in the papers of this Special Issue, it is hoped that the Glossary , which is an ‘appendix’ to this Guest Editorial, and the technical review of mobile computational devices (pp. 392-395) will help readers in accessing the innovative potential offered by the leading edge technologies outlined in these papers.

I would like to thank the Guest Editors, Jeremy Roschelle, Tak-Wai Chan and Kinshuk for their various roles in bringing this Special Issue of JCAL to fruition in a very short time.

Bob Lewis

Glossary of terms and acronyms

This glossary was complied by Mike Sharples, Educational Technology Research Group,
University of Birmingham, UK

802.11b The most widely used standard from WLAN, providing a data rate of up to 11 Megabits/ s. Uses a transmission frequency that does not require a radio operators licence, but is the same frequency as used by microwave ovens and other consumer devices, which could interfere with the signal and lower the data rate.

802.11a A new standard for WLAN communication, providing a data rate of up to 54 megabits/ s. Uses a higher frequency for the transmission than 802.11a, which means that, for a given power, the range is shorter.

802.11g A new standard for WLAN communication with data rates up to 54 megabits/ s. Uses the same transmission frequency as 802.11b.

Bluetooth A data communication system increasingly provided in PDAs and mobile phones, giving reasonably high speed communication (up to 720 kilobits/ s) over short distances (up to 10 m). Uses the same transmission frequency as WLAN, so Bluetooth and WLAN used in the same location could cause interference and lower data rates. Bluetooth offers features such as automatic discovery of other Bluetooth-enabled devices.

Clamshell The standard design of laptop computer with a screen that folds over a keyboard base.

GPS A system using satellites to provide positioning information, now with an accuracy of 5–10 m. Can be used to provide Location Based Services (LBS), such as showing where the user is located on a map, providing directions, or to sending information relevant to the location (such as a tourist guide). An extension of GPS, called Differential GPS (DGPS), can give an accuracy of about 2 m.

GPRS A method of sending data to and from mobile phones, by producing ‘packets’ of data that are transmitted via the GSM system. The differences from GSM are that data can be sent about 10 times faster, and that the user only pays for each packet sent or received rather than for the time spent connected.

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) The digital voice telephony system used for mobile phones in more than 100 countries and the de facto standard in Europe and Asia. Designed for voice communications, it can also be used for slow speed (9.6 kilobits/ s) data connections.

Handheld (see PDA)

IrDA A standard defined by the Infrared Data Association to transfer data between computers without cables, via infrared light. The data rate can be up to 16 megabits/s but the devices must be within clear line of sight and less than about 2 m apart. Can also be used to remote control devices.

LAN (Local area network) An interconnection of computers within a restricted area such as a campus or school, usually with high speed connections of 10 or 100 megabits/ s. Usually requires cables between each computer, though wireless LANs are becoming more common.

PDA (Personal Digital Assistant - sometimes called Handheld). A handheld computer, originally focused on supporting mobile office needs such as finding contacts or managing a diary, now with a broader range of personal tools. Some provide communication through GPRS or WLAN. Its data can be synchronised with a desktop computer or network.

SMS (Short Message Service) The system used for sending text messages between mobile phones. The message length is limited to 160 characters.

MMS Multimedia Messaging Service. An extension of SMS for sending multimedia messages, such as pictures and graphics.

Tablet PC It has the power and functionality of a conventional laptop computer, coupled with a fold-flat or detachable touch-sensitive screen. Has the ability to record handwritten notes and diagrams.

UMTS (Universal Mobile Telephone Service) A third generation (3G) system for mobile communication at speeds up to 2 Megabits/ s, enabling video phones and streaming of video to handheld devices.

WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) A method for delivering worldwide web information to mobile phones. It uses a version of the HTML web description language, WML, designed to describe pages of content for delivery over slow speed connections and display on devices with small screens and one-hand navigation without a keyboard. The need for WAP is now reduced, with new handheld devices able to display normal HTML web pages.

WLAN Wireless LAN. A system for high speed wireless communication over medium distances (currently up to about 100 m outdoors and around 10–20 m indoors). Becoming used in schools and workplaces to extend or replace a LAN, giving users with portable computers access to the Web.

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Keynote paper: Unlocking the learning value of wireless mobile devices

J. Roschelle, S.R.I. International, Menlo Park, California

Email: Jeremy.Roschelle@sri.com

Many researchers see the potential of wireless mobile learning devices to achieve large-scale impact on learning because of portability, low cost, and communications features. This enthusiasm is shared but the lessons drawn from three well-documented uses of connected handheld devices in education lead towards challenges ahead. First, ‘wireless, mobile learning’ is an imprecise description of what it takes to connect learners and their devices together in a productive manner. Research needs to arrive at a more precise understanding of the attributes of wireless networking that meet acclaimed pedagogical requirements and desires. Second, ‘pedagogical applications’ are often led down the wrong road by complex views of technology and simplistic views of social practices. Further research is needed that tells the story of rich pedagogical practice arising out of simple wireless and mobile technologies. Third, ‘large scale’ impact depends on the extent to which a common platform, that meets the requirements of pedagogically rich applications, becomes available. At the moment ‘wireless mobile technologies for education’ are incredibly diverse and incompatible; to achieve scale, a strong vision will be needed to lead to standardisation, overcoming the tendency to marketplace fragmentation.

Keywords: Collaboration; Internet; IT-use; Network; Portable; School; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 259-271

Accepted 19 May 2003

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Collaborative learning in mobile work

J. Lundin & M. Magnussonm Viktoria Institute & Volvo Information Technology AB, Göteborg

Email: johan.lundin@viktoria.se

Moving towards more communication intensive organisations, where work tends to be mobile, understanding how to support learning in such work becomes increasingly important. This paper reports on a study of a customer relations team, where work is performed co-located, distributed as well as mobile. Collaborative learning within in this team is explored so as to inform the design of IT support. In the results four instances of collaborative learning important in the studied team were identified: walking into collaborative learning, travelling to meetings, articulating practice and sharing without articulating. These issues are discussed and how they affect the design of collaborative learning activities for mobile knowledge workers.

Keywords: Collaboration; Design; Ethnographic; Mobility; Peer; Professional; Team

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 272-282

Accepted 3 May 2003

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Conceptual tools for planning for the wireless classroom

C. DiGiano, L. Yarnall, C. Patton, J. Roschelle, D. Tatar & M. Manley

Center for Technology in Learning, SRI International and Manley Design, Menlo Park,

Email: chris.digiano@sri.com

Wireless and mobile devices are beginning to offer stunning new technical capabilities for collaborative learning. Yet, researchers in this field must recognise the importance of complementing these technical advances with improved understanding of the patterns of classroom activity that most need support. The approach taken in the work reported in this paper has been to create conceptual tools that help thinking and talking about technology-supported collaborative learning. A particularly powerful tool is Collaborative Design Patterns, which captures common learning situations and benefits in written form. This paper uses four classroom scenarios to describe eight patterns. These patterns fall into two categories: whole-activity patterns, which suggest ways to organise one or more class periods, and smaller-grained support patterns.

Keywords: Case study; Collaboration; Groupware; Handheld; IT-use; Mobile; Process; Qualitative; School; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 284-297

Accepted 3 April 2003

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Observations in classrooms using a network of handheld devices

S. Davis, Texas Instruments and The University of Texas

Email: sdavis@ti.com

This paper illustrates the educational implications of the design features of public anonymity and private accountability in a classroom network of handheld devices. The author draws from four years of observations of classes using two early network prototypes. Themes discussed are anonymity of data submission to the group, the ability for students to see their data displayed in the group space, the ability for the teacher to instantly assess how all students are doing at any time during a lesson, and that the ability of the network to let all students answer all questions may have an impact upon student engagement in the classroom. The paper goes on to highlight research done in the field of communications using synchronous electronic submission systems and relates this to the use of similar networks in the classroom.

Keywords: Communication; Group; Handheld; Interview; Intranet; Secondary; Synchronous

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 298-307

Accepted 15 April 2003

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A study of user experiences mediated by nomadic web content in a museum

S.Hsi, The Exploratorium, San Francisco

Email: sherryh@exploratorium.edu

How should nomadic web content be designed to improve and transform user experiences in a hands-on museum? In this study, 15 users were studied while using an electronic guidebook designed to augment user experiences via wireless technologies at the Exploratorium, an interactive science museum. Several recurring themes emerged from the analysis, such as users’ sense of isolation and users’ attempts to make a seamless transition between real-place and virtual contexts. This paper shares a preliminary framework for organising user interactions with handheld devices, user experiences based on interviews and insights regarding the role of nomadic web content.

Keywords: Experiential; Handheld; Informal; Interview; Museum; Navigation; Science; Teachers; Wireless; World-wide Web

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 308-319

Accepted 14 May 2003

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Personal Digital Assistants in medical education and practice

O. Smørdal & J. Gregory, InterMedia and Department of Informatics, University of Oslo

Email: ole.smordal@intermedia.uio.no

This paper reports on a current project, KNOWMOBILE, that explores how wireless and mobile technologies, in this case how Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) may be useful in medical education and clinical practice, particularly to access net-based information. KNOWMOBILE is a research collaboration involving academic and industrial partners which aims to support Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and the integration of Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM) in medical education reform in Norway. What does ‘just-in-time’ access to information mean in clinical settings? How can health professionals be helped with access to the most up-to-date medical information? From a preliminary analysis of the problems of Personal Digital Assistants in use — and nonuse — problems regarding information and communication infrastructure discussed that require work from a social historical interpretation of ‘infrastructures’ in order to enhance design perspectives and directions for future research. It is concluded that the PDAs should not be regarded as Personal Digital Assistants, but rather as gateways in complicated webs of interdependent technical and social networks.

Keywords: Empirical; Evidence-based; Handheld; Infrastructure; Medical education; Mobile; World-wide web

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 320-329

Accepted 3 April 2003

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Mobile learning in teacher training

P. Seppälä & H. Alamäki, University of Helsinki & Oy Radiolinja Ab

Email: Pauliina.O.Seppala@helsinki.fi

This paper describes a mobile learning project, where mobile devices are used for educational activities. The main focus of this paper is teacher training. Experiences on the use of mobile technology and how it was used in teacher training, especially how trainees and supervising teachers felt about it, are presented. The pilot study was carried out at the Department of Home Economics and Craft Science in University of Helsinki. The idea of the pilot was that the supervising teacher and trainee students could discus and share their ideas about teaching methods through the mobile device and use of a short message service (SMS) and digital pictures as a part of the supervising process. The use of digital pictures which were delivered via the mobile device proved to be surprisingly successful. The goal of these innovative pilot projects is to create flexible teaching solutions, which will enable access to information using different devices, and support learning in a variety of situations.

Keywords: Case Study; Change; Distributed; Handheld; Interview; IT-use; Mobile; Teachers; Training; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 330-335

Accepted 3 April 2002

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Concept and design of Ad Hoc and Mobile classrooms

C.Y. Chang, J.P. Sheu & T.W. Chan,
Tamkang University and National Central University, Taiwan

Email:cychang@cs.tku.edu.tw

This investigation describes the concept of mobile learning and the design of Ad Hoc and Mobile classrooms. Four classes of mobile learning and implementation of Ad Hoc and eSchoolbag systems are presented. The paper discusses the development of advanced wireless technologies for building an ad hoc classroom to create a modern and new learning environment. As in a traditional classroom, information technology is developed to provide the teacher with aids, such as a blackboard, a board rubber, coloured chalk, a microphone, a voice recorder, a video recorder, and so on, to support teaching and discussions. Additionally, students are provided with an electronic schoolbag which contains electronic books, a notebook, a parents’ contact book, a pencil case, writing materials, sheets, a calculator, an address book, and other items. Taking lessons in a lively, vivid and new learning environment, it is expected that students will improve their learning performance with perhaps less attendance in a physical classroom and they gain the flexibility of being able to learn at their own convenience.

Keywords: Ad Hoc classroom; eSchoolbag; Handheld; Mobile classroom; School; Student-centred; Wireless.

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 336-346

Accepted 10 April 2003

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A mobile learning system for scaffolding bird watching learning

Y.S. Chen, T.C. Kao & J.P. Sheu,
National Chung Cheng, National Dong Hwa & National Central Universities, Taiwan

Email: yschen@cs.ccu.edu.tw

This paper develops a mobile learning system for scaffolding students learning about bird-watching. The aim is to construct an outdoor mobile-learning activity using up-to-date wireless technology. The proposed Bird-Watching Learning (BWL) system is designed using a wireless mobile ad-hoc network. In the BWL system, each learner has a PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) with a Wi-Fi-based (IEEE 802.11b) wireless network card. The BWL system offers a mobile learning system which supports the students learning through scaffolding. The aim of a formative evaluation was twofold: to explore the possible roles and scaffolding aids that the mobile learning device offers for bird-watching activities and to investigate whether student learning benefited from the mobility, portability, and individualisation of the mobile learning device.

Keywords: Bird-watching; Formative; Intranet; Mobile; Quantitative; Scaffolding; School; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 347-359

Accepted 15 April 2003

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xTask – an adaptable learning environment

H. Ketamo, Tampere University of Technology, Finland

Email: harri.ketamo@tut.fi

The general aim of this study was to develop a platform-adaptive learning environment (xTask) and to evaluate its use. The software environment can be accessed by PC’s or mobile devices, such as PDA’s or Communicator. The empirical part of the study was carried out during May 2002 with 10 students between 21 and 50 years of age participating in a course on mobile device usability. In the study the xTask interface proved functional. The working processes show clearly that there were phases when the work was efficient with mobile devices, but students also felt that mobile devices were not ready to be the only platform for learning. They preferred PC’s with wired networks, but admitted that PDA’s could be used to support aspects of the learning processes. Generally, mobile technologies can bring some added value for network based learning, but they cannot replace traditional computers.

Keywords: Action research; Collaboration; Handheld; Internet; IT-use; Mobile; Process; Undergraduate; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 360-370

Accepted 1 April 2003

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Wireless and mobile technologies to enhance teaching and learning

T.C. Liu, H.Y. Wang, J.K. Liang, T.W. Chan, H.W. Ko & J.C. Yang

National Central University, Taiwan.

Email: ltc@cc.ncu.edu.tw

This research aims to build a Wireless Technology Enhanced Classroom (WiTEC) that supports everyday activities unobtrusively and seamlessly in classroom contexts. This paper describes the integration of wireless LAN, wireless mobile learning devices, an electronic whiteboard, an interactive classroom server, and a resource and class management server to build the WiTEC. This contains a number of features that can support class members in various types of teaching and learning activities. Project-based learning is taken as a scenario to elaborate how teachers and students can engage in teaching and learning via WiTEC. Finally, a number of suggestions are discussed for further study.

Keywords: Wireless; Mobile; Ubiquitous computing; Project-based learning; Interactive; Primary, IT-use

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 371-382

Accepted 15 April 2003

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Educational scenarios for cooperative use of Personal Digital Assistants

N. Pinkwart, H.U. Hoppe, M. Milrad & J. Perez
University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany & Växjö University, Sweden

Email: pinkwart@collide.info

Based on experience in orchestrating collaborative learning scenarios with ubiquitous computing technology, three approaches for extending co-constructive modelling and discussion environments with Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) connected through a wireless network are described. One application is an annotation tool, the second one replicates a modelling system on the PDA and the third one makes use of a wireless optical reader in addition to the PDA. They all provide ‘lightweight’ synchronisation mechanisms in PC-based environments. General design and implementation strategies for such extensions are discussed in terms of model, view and controller.

Keywords: Case study; Collaboration; Distributed; Handheld; Mobile; Primary; Synchronous; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 383-391

Accepted 1 April 2003

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A technical review of mobile computational devices

M. Sharples & R. Beale, Educational Technology Research Group, University of Birmingham

Email: m.sharples@bham.ac.uk

Mobile technology is changing so fast, with new products being introduced daily, that any review of specific devices will rapidly be so out of date as to be unhelpful. Thus, this review focuses on general classes of device, with examples of manufacturers and machines for illustration only.

There is a major convergence of technology in progress, which some view as leading towards single devices with multiple functions such as mobile phone, multimedia computer and digital camera. Others predict a host of mobile activities (e.g. digital imaging, video, location sensing) and many different devices offering subsets of these. Whatever the outcome, the trend is towards a greater variety of technologies. New mobile phones are capable of video calls, multimedia and video messaging, and loading and running programs such as interactive games or teaching packages. Some handheld computers have built-in high speed wireless connection to the Internet either through Wireless LAN or GPRS phone link, or both. New pen tablet computers come with full Windows operating systems and wireless LAN connection and so can function like laptop computers as well as notetaking devices. Over the coming decade the convergence will continue, to embrace mobile Internet gaming, remote monitoring (e.g. of household appliances or laboratory experiments), and mobile interactive television.

Currently, mobile computational devices can be divided into six general categories, in rough order of computational power: wrist-worn devices, mobile phones, handheld computers and PDAs, web pads, pen tablet computers and laptops.

Wrist-worn devices

As well as telling time and date, some wristwatches can now measure temperature, barometric pressure, altitude, and heartrate, or act as GPS location devices or MP3 music players. Intended for specific interests or activities, they are not designed as cut-down computers and generally have no or limited connectivity with other mobile devices.

Mobile phones

Most mobile phones now use digital telephony and are capable of sending and receiving data, though at slow speeds (9.6 kilobits/sec). Some older multimedia phones such as the Nokia 9210 use standard GSM connection, which means that while reading email can be acceptable, browsing the web is painfully slow. The newer GPRS system offers higher data rates and ‘always on’ connection, making it possible to browse the Internet, send multimedia messages and receive and send email. An example of a GPRS multimedia phone is the Sony Ericsson P800. It has a large 208 ´ 320 touch sensitive screen like a handheld computer, with a number-pad that folds over part of the screen so it can be operated like a normal mobile phone. It offers personal organiser functions, plus a camera, audio and video player. Its Symbian operating system, however, is different to that found on handhelds so that it cannot run standard PocketPC or Palm programs. The ‘third generation’ or 3G phones, such as the Siemens U10, allow even faster speeds of connection, for receiving video or making videophone calls.

Handheld computers

Until recently handheld computers (also known as palmtop computers) offered a limited range of tools and were designed either as personal organisers (such as the Palm) or note takers (such as the Psion). New handhelds offer almost as wide a range of applications as a desktop PC, including MP3 music players, web browsers, and paint packages. Almost all use a stylus to input data, although both older machines such as the Psion and newer ones such as the Tungsten W have built-in keyboards. The handhelds can be classed according to their operating systems: PalmOS, PocketPC, Epoc and Linux.

A typical low end PalmOS machine is the Palm Zire. This has a relatively old Motorola Dragonball EZ 16 Mhz processor and only 2Mb of built-in memory. It is light (109 g) and small (112 mm ´ 74 mm ´ 16 mm), but has a 320 ´ 320 monochrome display, no expansion slot to add extra memory or accessories, and no audio capabilities. All PalmOS devices can connect to a desktop computer and synchronise data with calendar and address book programs. The Palm range was designed from the outset to be thin enough to put in a pocket and easy to operate for basic personal organiser tools. Note taking is done using the stylus on a part of the screen that recognises stylised ‘graffiti’ characters. About 30 min of training is needed to learn how to input text and from then on the recognition is reasonably fast and accurate.

The higher-end palm OS machines such as the Sony Clié PEG NX70V have a keyboard, a colour 320 ´ 480 pixel screen, a digital still and integral movie camera, with a slot to add Sony’s own 802. 11b wireless LAN and also a memory stick with up to 128Mb memory. The NX70V has a 200-MHz Intel processor, 65,536 colour TFT screen and 16Mb of built-in memory.

PocketPC handheld computers, such as the HP iPAQ are designed as Windows computers in the hand. The interface is similar to Windows, with a Start button for accessing software applications and screens and a file browser like that on a Windows desktop PC. The front ‘Today’ screen gives an overview of activities such as appointments, unread emails, and pending ‘to do’ items. Synchronising files and Outlook tools with desktop computers is easy using the built-in ActiveSync software. One key difference from PalmOS computers is that more than one application can be running at once. It is easy to click between applications, but having too many open causes the system to run very slowly as it tries to manage its limited memory.

A typical basic machine is the HP iPAQ 1910, with an Intel 200 MHz chip and 64Mb of built in memory (46 Mb accessible to the user), plus an SD slot to add further memory. It is relatively small (1220 mm ´ 78 mm ´ 13 mm) and light (120 gm) with most of the area taken up with a bright colour 240 ´ 320 pixel screen. Unlike low-end Palm machines it has a microphone, speaker, and an earpiece jack. The battery life is somewhat low (HP claims four hours) but with the option of swapping batteries. At the other extreme, the H5450 comes with Bluetooth to communicate with other devices such as mobile phones, 802.11b to connect to a wireless LAN, and built-in fingerprint recognition to stop unauthorised access. It has 64Mb of memory and a 240 ´ 320 screen, as well as a fast 400 MHz processor. Others making PocketPC computers include Toshiba, Acer, NEC, and Mitac. Siemens and xda manufacture PocketPC computers with a built-in GSM phone.

Only a few companies, including Sharp and Yopy, offer Linux handheld computers. The Yopy YP3500 is almost a miniature laptop computer, with a ‘clamshell design’, keyboard and the Linux operating system. The Epoc operating system is now only found on the discontinued Psion computers.

Web pads

The term ‘web pad’ was coined by National Semiconductor in 1998 to describe a wireless tablet computer that is specifically designed to access the Internet. The idea was that home or school users would not want a fully specified laptop or tablet computer, but rather a machine that provided the two basic functions of web browsing and reading email. A small number of companies such as Amstrad, Fujitsu and Hitachi manufactured webpads, but high level of interest during 2000–2001 evaporated with the arrival of more fully specified pen tablet computers.

Pen tablet computers

The pen tablet computer has a long and honourable history, dating back to the far-sighted Xerox Dynabook project of the early 1970s. Kay and Goldberg wrote:

Imagine having your own self contained knowledge manipulator in a portable package the size and the shape of an ordinary notebook. Suppose it had enough power to out race your senses of sight and hearing, enough capacity to store for later retrieval thousands of page equivalents of reference materials, poems, letter, recipes, records, drawings, animations, musical scores, waveforms, dynamic simulations and anything else you would like to remember and change (Kay & Goldberg, 1977).

That dream has now been realised. In the late 1990s companies including Fujitsu began to produce machines with the functionality of a laptop computer, including the full Windows operating system, but in a package the size and shape of a thick A5 or A4 notepad. They had touch sensitive colour screens operated by a stylus and some provided docking stations and infrared keyboards so that they could also be used as desktop replacement computers. Tablets found a niche in markets such as medical record keeping and technical fault-finding, as well as in education as an ‘electronic schoolbook’ and Microsoft produced the Windows CE operating system as a cut-down version of Windows for tablets and other portable machines.

In 2002 Microsoft produced a new operating system for Tablet PCs, the Windows XP Tablet PC Edition, along with a set of hardware specifications for manufacturers designing hardware for that system. The requirements include (in simplified form) that the tablet must:

• use an active digitizer rather than a resistive (touch) digitizer;

• be legacy-free (no serial, parallel or PS/2 ports);

• be able to rotate the display between landscape and portrait without rebooting;

• resume from suspend in less than 2 seconds;

• last in suspend mode for more than 72 hours, starting with a full battery

• automatically hibernate (save to disk) upon battery exhaustion in suspend mode;

• allow surprise removal from a dock; upon reinsertion, everything must work.

The operating system offers a number of features specifically for tablet computers such as handwriting recognition (with accuracy varying from very good to barely acceptable dependent on your style of handwriting), note taking facilities, text searching of handwritten notes, document annotation, and speech recognition.

A number of manufacturers produce tablet computers that conform to this specification including Compaq, Toshiba, Fujitsu, Acer and Research Machines. Although they all have the same operating system and thus can run the same software applications, the specification and appearance of the different manufacturers’ machines differs widely. Two contrasting examples are the Toshiba Portégé 3500 and the Compaq TC1000.

The Toshiba machine looks like a conventional ‘clamshell’ laptop computer, but the screen can rotate and fold back flat on the keyboard to make a (somewhat bulky) tablet computer. It has a fast 1.33 GHz Intel PIII mobile processor, a standard 256 Mb memory and a 20Gb hard drive. The 12.1 inch screen has a 1024 ´ 768 resolution high colour display. The active pen has a ‘hovering’ capability, so that the cursor follows the pen even when it is not touching the pad. The machine has most of the connectivity of a standard laptop including 802.11b wireless connection. The manufacturer’s claimed battery life is 3.5 hours although a typical duration would be 2.5–3 hours.

The Compaq computer is a tablet device that can be slotted into a keyboard, giving it the ability to change from a tablet to notebook PC. It uses the FinePoint Digitizer stylus, which does not have pressure sensitivity and needs an AAAA battery, but performs well near the screen edges. The Compaq machine has a 1gHz Transmeta TM5800 Crusoe chip, which is slower than the Toshiba’s, particularly when the unit is first turned on or an application is being launched for the first time. The advantage is a longer battery life, which is 3.5–4 hours when power management is set to automatic, but around 5 hours if power management is set to Maximum Battery. It has a smaller 10.4 inch screen with 1024 ´ 768 resolution and comes with built-in wireless LAN, a 30Gb hard drive and standard PC-type connections.

Research Machines manufactures a tablet aimed at the education market. It is light (1.4 Kg) and relatively inexpensive, but with no keyboard. It comes in a student edition and a teacher edition (with a faster processor and additional connectivity). Both versions have integrated 802.11b wireless LAN.

Laptop computers

Laptop computers are now so ubiquitous as to need no detailed survey. They range from small light machines (though these are being overtaken by pen tablet computers) to desktop replacements with 17 inch screens.

Reference

Kay, A. & Goldberg, A. (1977) Personal dynamic media. IEEE Computer, 10, 3, 31–41.

Sources:

Include: manufacturers’ specifications and
http://www.tabletpctalk.com/faqs/hwcomparison.shtml,
http://www.pencomputing.com/frames/textblock_webpads.html
PDA Essentials, Issue 13, 2003

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 392-395

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Vol. 19, No. 4, December 2003

Using group communication to monitor web-based group learning

G.D. Chen, K.L. Ou, H.P. Chen & C.Y. Wang, National Central University, Chung-Li, Taiwan

Email: chen@csie.ncu.edu.tw

In a web group-learning environment, students must communicate with other group members on the Internet to accomplish group projects and share learnt knowledge. Simultaneously, communication within the group is likely to affect group performance. Thus, analysing the relationship between (communicative relationships and group performance may help teachers to monitor groups effectively. The following tasks are necessary to perform such an analysis — recording group communication, extracting communication relationships and determining the relationship between group communication and group performance. This study develops a method for determining relationships and rules for predicting performance to enable teachers to take act appropriately according to the predicted performance of the group, to improve group learning. Four group performance indicators are considered — average grades within a group, project grade, frequency of resource-sharing and drop-out rate. Experimental results are also presented, concerning the application of the methodology to a web class of 706 students, divided into 70 groups. The experimental results show that group communication patterns significantly affect group performance.

Keywords: Collaboration; Communication; Discourse analysis; Email; Group; Peers; Undergraduate; World-wide web

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 401-415

Accepted: 1 November 2002

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Reciprocal tutoring using cognitive tools

W.K. Wong, T.W. Chan, C.Y. Chou, J.S. Heh & S.H. Tung
National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, National Central University & Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Email: wongwk@yutech.edu.tw

Reciprocal tutoring, where peers take turns to tutor each other, is an interesting style of social learning. In the Reciprocal Tutoring System (RTS), three computational cognitive tools were designed to facilitate reciprocal tutoring of Lisp programming on the network. The first is a Petal-style of code–chunk interface, with which a tutee can enter Lisp code without making syntactic errors. The second tool is Diagnosis-Hint Tree, with which a tutor can diagnose and comment on the errors in the tutee’s program. The third one is a list of dialogue templates, with which the tutee and the tutor can communicate during the tutoring process. A three-phase experiment was conducted, with each phase using different cognitive tools. In addition, with the help of the cognitive tools, RTS provides a virtual learning companion that can play tutor or tutee. Evaluation results reveal both the strengths and weaknesses of peer-based learning and intelligent tutoring, with supports of different cognitive tools. Peer-based learning supported by cognitive tools is a practical and attractive alternative to intelligent tutoring systems. Exactly which type of tutor is preferred depends on the tutee’s cognitive, communication, and emotional needs in the tutorial context.

Keywords: Agents; Attitude; Collaboration, Distance learning; IT-use; Summative evaluation

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 416-428

Accepted: 1 November 2002

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Action research in continuing professional distance education

M.B. Nunes & M. McPherson, Department of Information Studies, University of Sheffield

Email: j.m.nunes@sheffield.ac.uk

In order to support the persistent evolution of Continuing Professional Distance Education (CPDE), an action research approach must be taken. For action research to be successful, explicit research models must be formulated and used. This paper presents such a model that conjugates pedagogical thinking, curriculum design and organisational context: the Educational Management Action Research (EMAR) model. However, the complexities and precise specifications required by Educational Systems Design (ESD) call for better support through development frameworks that incorporate educational and systems development philosophies. This paper presents and discusses an ESD framework that has been extensively used in the development of eLearning.

Keywords: Action research; Continuing; Distance; eLearning; Internet; Professional; Systems design; University

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 429-437

Accepted: 1 November 2002

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Extensive reading online: an overview and evaluation

Y.C. Sun, National Chao-Tung University, Taiwan

Email: sunyc@cc.nctu.edu.tw

This study reports on the design and implementation of a reading program — Extensive Reading Online (ERO) — that aims to offer an online reading platform featuring specific needs for EFL learners in Taiwan. The system includes both teacher and student interfaces. Several reading aids are integrated into the system, such as concordancer help, stage-by-stage reading strategy training, and text annotation functions. ERO was integrated into a college level reading class. Results show that students held a positive attitude toward the reading system. Some recommendations for future improvement are also discussed..

Keywords: Concordancer; English; Extensive reading; Reading Strategies; Web-based

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 438-448

Accepted: 21 December 2002

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Integrating ICT into second language education in a vocational high school

S.S.C. Young, National Tsing Hua University, Hsin-Chu, Taiwan

Email: scy@mx.nthu.edu.tw

This study investigated the potential impacts of integrating the Internet into an English as a second language (ESL) class in a vocational senior high school in Taiwan and included 29 students and a young male English teacher. It was found that the students overall had a positive perception toward using Internet tools. This study indicated that the integration of information communication technology on the Internet with English facilitates the creation of a virtual environment that transforms learning from a traditional passive experience to one of discovery, exploration, and excitement in a less stressful setting. The study revealed that a computer-mediated communication environment could lower students’ psychological barriers to enable them to express their opinions freely and to communicate actively on the Internet and that it could also enhance their critical thinking, problem-solving and communication skills through online debates or class homepage construction. An individual case study further revealed that a task-oriented English tutoring strategy in association with email communication could motivate the student’s writing competence but the student’s language proficiency and grammatical accuracy did not improve. Finally, based on the findings, recommendations for future studies are made.

Keywords: Case study; Communication; Discourse analysis; Email; English; ESL; ICT-use; Interview; Questionnaire; Schools; Secondary

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 449-463

Accepted: 21 December 2002

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Developing a collaborative learning environment using a web-based design

M. Neo, Multimedia University, Malaysia

Email: kneo@pc.jaring.my

Today, technology is being used to support teachers in designing interesting and stimulating learning environments for the students. In this paper, a web-based design project is used to create a collaborative learning environment with the aim of inculcating collaborative skills into the learners and increase their problem-solving and critical thinking skills. The design project was created using multimedia tools such as Dreamweaver and Adobe-Photoshop. Students worked in groups and were actively responsible for their own learning processes. Results showed that students engaged in collaborative learning enhanced their problem-solving and critical thinking skills, learned to work in a team and became more autonomous learners.

Keywords: Attitude; Collaboration; Constructivist; IT-use; Multimedia; Student-centred; Team

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 464-475

Accepted: 19 December 2002

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Understanding and analysing activity and learning in virtual communities

F. Henri & B. Pudelko, Centre de Recherche LICEF, Télé-université du Québec

Email: france_henri@teluq.uquebec.ca

The purpose of this study was to provide a preliminary framework to observe, analyse and evaluate both activity and learning in virtual communities. So various types of virtual communities were studied by examining their relationship to socialisation and learning. After a presentation of the main ideas of Wenger’s social learning theory, the principal components of the social context of the emergence and evolution of virtual communities will be described. It will show how taking this context into account enables the definition of four principal types of virtual communities: community of interest, goal-oriented community of interest, learners’ community and community of practice and describe how the activity of these communities develops according to the goals they set for themselves and to the strategies they adopt to reach them. For each type of virtual community, an attempt will be made to determine the process of negotiation of meaning at the base of learning, and to describe the learning performed in terms of participation and reification processes..

Keywords: Asynchronous; Collaboration; Learning; Negotiation; Socialization; Virtual communities

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 476-489

Accepted: 2 October 2002

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Undergraduate students’ gender differences in IT skills and attitudes

A. Lee, Centre for the Advancement of University Teaching, The University of Hong Kong

E-mail: anitalee@hkucc.hku.hk

The worldwide concern about the gender gap in information technology and the lack of woman participation in computer science has been attributed to the different cultural influences to which boys and girls are subject. In The University of Hong Kong, girls achieved greater improvements in their computer skills than their male counterparts after completing one year of studies. Recognising their own progress has, in turn, boosted their confidence in using IT. The young women’s estimates of their skill levels have doubled over the years from 1998 to 2000. Despite this recorded acceleration at the end of the academic years, girls were less confident of their abilities and possessed lower IT skill levels than boys before starting their university education, as found in surveys of freshmen’s computer skills. This study compares the responses of student participants of the HKU/IBM Notebook Computer Programme, which started in 1998, in the self-reported IT skills and attitudes of male and female students, in surveys conducted both at the beginning and again at the end of the freshman year. It also examines the achievement scores of the IT Proficiency Tests and the ‘Foundations to Information Technology’ courses administered for the student IT requirement for graduation.

Keywords: Attitudes; Computer; Gender; IT-use; Quantitative; Survey; Undergraduate

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 490-503

Accepted: 20 December 2002

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Contextual issues in the construction of computer-based learning programs

A.C.K. Leung, Department of Information Systems, Lingnan University, N.T., Hong Kong

Email: leungcka@ln.edu.hk

Based on the constructive learning theories, particularly constructivism, four contextual issues are identified and discussed in this paper regarding the construction of effective computer-based learning programs, namely topic selection, authenticity, complexity, and multiple perspectives. These four issues are considered essential for effective learning in terms of learners’ participation, reasoning and knowledge construction. After a thorough review and discussion of these issues, a generic conceptual model is built, which shows both the interrelationships among the four issues and the measurement variables of each issue. It is expected that the four contextual issues and the generic model can provide invaluable insights toward research in computer-based learning, training and many other related fields, and address the needs of practitioners to develop better computer-based learning programs. Recommendation for further research is also suggested in the end.

Keywords: Constructivist; Courseware; Discovery learning; Multimedia; Problem solving; Student-Centred

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 503-518

Accepted: 23 December 2002

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Previews in hypertexts: effects on navigation and knowledge acquisition

U. Cress & O.B. Knabel, Institute for Psychology, University of Tuebingen

Email: u.cress@iwm-kmrc.de

In hypertexts previews can be used as local tools for navigation. They pop up when a link is activated and provide information about the linked page. In an experimental study with 50 participants the effect of previews on searching and knowledge acquisition was investigated. The participants had to explore a hypertext with the aim either to understand as much as they could or to search for information. Previews enhanced knowledge acquisition in both conditions and supported intentional and incidental learning. In the searching condition previews were used for link selection, even if they could not enhance the search results.

Keywords: Advance organiser; Browsing; Hypertext; Previews; Searching; Undergraduate

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 519-529

Accepted: 23 December 2002

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Characteristics of multimedia textbooks that affect post-test scores

J. Mikk & P. Luik, Department of Education, University of Tartu, Estonia

Email: piretluik@hot.ee

The evaluation of computer software relies on the relationship between the characteristics of the software and the efficiency of its use. To find out which characteristics of the software can influence the level of acquired knowledge, an experiment was carried out with tenth grade students in Estonian schools. Fifty-four students studied 35 units from different multimedia textbooks. Correlation coefficients between the post-test score of the students and different characteristics of the textbooks were calculated. The correlation coefficients revealed five factor groups for the post-test score: text, presentation of information on the computer screen, graphics, navigation, and students’ self-control.

Keywords: Empirical; Interface; Multimedia; Readability; Secondary; Software evaluation

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 530-539

Accepted: 12 January 2003

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An exploratory study of adolescent’s perceptions of the Web

J. Dinet, P. Marquet & E. Nissen, Universities of Strasbourg & Poitiers

Email: jerome.dinet@univ-poitiers.fr

The purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate the influence of two individual characteristics (Web experience and academic focus) of adolescents on the Web perception, using off-line questionnaires (a Lickert response scale) constituted on the basis of a series of interviews. Questions concerned: perceptions about the nature of information found in the Web; ‘strategies’ of access to the interesting Internet sites and the reliability of different information resources (libraries, television, Web, etc.). Results lead to the assumption that adolescents with high Web experience became more critical, less confident and less enthusiastic than adolescents with low Web experience and that, in some dimensions, perceptions of literature students are different to those of science students. Even if some interesting results were obtained, further research is needed to explore users’ perceptions related to individuals’ characteristics and to determine the generalisability of the influences identified in this exploratory study.

Keywords: Adolescent; Information retrieval; Perceptions; Secondary; Student-centred; Questionnaire; World-wide web

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 540-547

Accepted: 18 March 2003

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The Internet for educating individuals with social impairments

J. Bishop, School of Computing, University of Glamorgan

Email: jonathan@jonathanbishop.com

Social impairments materialise in a number of forms, from developmental disabilities such as autistic spectrum disorder, to psychiatric conditions such as social phobia. The individuals diagnosed with these problems find it difficult to deal with social situations through either the inability to perform in these situations or the fear of not being able to do so. The study investigated the social and practical implications of using Mobile Internet technology to deliver information relating to a social situation in real-time to participants with Autistic Spectrum Disorders (n = 10) and General Social Phobia (n = 3) diagnosed using DSM-IV. The participants used the agent on their mobile phone to convert phrases they found offensive or confusing into more concise and understandable definitions. Analysing their attitudes found that the technology enables socially impaired individuals to learn the meaning of emotions and understand more about how they communicate with their peers. However, the study concludes that governmental organisations, education providers and society as a whole need to adopt a cohesive approach to communication to ensure socially impaired individuals are fully included in society

Keywords: Autism; Collaboration; Emotion recognition; Social phobia; Special education; Wireless agents

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 548-558

Accepted: 19 March 2003

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Effects of vocabulary computer training in kindergarten

E. Segers & L. Verhoeven, Dept. of Special Education, University of Nijmegen

Email: e.segers@ped.kun.nl

In the present study, intensive vocabulary training by computer was undertaken in a two-year kindergarten programme in the Netherlands. In the intervention, 67 native and immigrant children in the first and second years of kindergarten played vocabulary games on the computer twice a week for a period of 15 minutes over 15 weeks. A control group of 97 kindergartners followed the regular curriculum. In a pre-test-training-post-test-retention test design, positive effects of the computer training were found on a curriculum-dependent vocabulary test. A trend was found towards positive effects of the computer training on a curriculum-independent test for children in their second year of kindergarten. The results present an alternative and relatively teacher-independent method to enlarge children’s vocabularies.

Keywords: CD-ROM; Control group; Experiment; Multimedia; Pre-school; Quantitative; Second language learning; Vocabulary

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 4, 559-568

Accepted: 10 April 2003

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Pending papers for Volume 20 (provisional texts)

Could a laptop computer plus the LCD projector amount to improved multimedia geoscience instruction?

C.Y. Chang, Department of Earth Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University

Email: changcy@cc.ntnu.edu.tw

In this study, a multimedia computer-aided tutorial (MCAT) on the topic of debris-flow hazards was developed for senior high school students in Taiwan. The format of the new course is a blend of whole class presentations, interactive discussions among the teacher and students, and classroom activities using the MCAT software. The whole class presentation was presented through combining the usage of a laptop computer and a high-resolution LCD projector to display the MCAT contents on a large white screen in front of a whole class. Besides, class discussions between the teacher and the students and among students were also embedded in the teaching format. Students’ earth science learning outcomes was evaluated through administering an achievement test and a survey of attitudes toward earth science subject before and after the course. The results indicated that the MCAT accompanied by the current ‘interactive whole class teaching’ form could significantly help students’ grasp of earth science concepts and greatly improve their attitudes toward earth science.

Keywords: Achievement; Attitudes; Computer; Geoscience; Multimedia; Secondary school

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, xxxxxxxxx

Accepted: 15 May 2003

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Tools for the job: a report of two surveys of ICT use for literacy in primary schools in the West of England

S. Waite, University of Plymouth,

Email: sjwaite@plymouth.ac.uk

Substantial investment has been made in improving computer hardware and raising the profile of ICT in English primary schools in recent years, in line with the belief that skills in ICT are essential for our future workforce. This study compares practising teachers' responses in 1998 and 2001 to a questionnaire about the aims and uses of ICT in primary schools for literacy activities. It discusses the changes in what teachers want and their understanding of the task government has given them to do. A commonly cited problem is finding time to absorb the new technology to maximise its pedagogic potential.

Keywords: Computers, Literacy, Survey, Teachers, Primary Education

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, xxxxxxxxx

Accepted: 10 July 2003

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A structured dialogue tool for argumentative learning

L. Hirsch, M. Saeedi, J. Cornillon & L. Litosseliti, Royal Holloway College, University of London

Email: Laurence.Hirsch@rhul.ac.uk

This paper presents a structured environment for Computer Supported Collaborative Argumentation (CSCA), which we call the Argumentative Learning Experience (ALEX). The system aims to improve understanding of argumentation and to widen and deepen the space of debate among 16-18 year old students. To use ALEX users make arguments by selecting and completing partial sentences. An automatically created visual representation of the argument is displayed and personalised advice on the argumentation is provided to each user.

Keywords: Communication, Dialogue, Secondary, Interview, IT-use, CSCA, argument strategies.

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, xxxxxxxxx

Accepted: 27 July 2003

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Internet project-based learning environment: the effects of thinking styles on learning transfer

C.I. Lee & F.Y. Tsai, National Tainan Teachers College, Taiwan

Email: leeci@ipx.ntntc.edu.tw

The purpose of this study, in an environment of Internet Project-Based Learning (NetPBL), is to undertake research on the effects of thinking styles on learning transfer. In this study, we established an environment which incorporates Project-Based Learning (PBL) and Internet. Within this environment, we divided our sample of elementary school students into four groups: Executive Group, Legislative Group, Judicial Group, and Mixed Group. Taking the learning of “Natural Science” as an example, we investigated the effects of different thinking styles on learning transfer. The results of this study found:

* that there are significant differences between the near transfer of the Executive Group and the
Legislative Group,

* that no significant differences in far transfer are found among groups of different thinking styles.

* the near transfer of the Mixed Group is superior to that of the Legislative Group and the Judicial
Group and

* the far transfer of the Mixed Group is superior to that of the Legislative Group.

Keywords: Internet Project-Based Learning; Thinking styles; Transfer of learning; Cooperative learning; Performance assessment; Elementary school student

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, xxxxxxxxx

Accepted: 2 August 2003

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In search of online pedagogical models through investigating a changing teaching paradigm in the School for all community

S.S.C. Young, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan

Email: scy@mx.nthu.edu.tw

Following a preliminary evaluation of the Web-mediated School for All in 2002, this study further examines the online teacher role and explores possible pedagogical models in this Web-based informal lifelong learning context through the long-term innovative e-learning project in a two-year period. The author documents the educational rationale, reviews related literature on web-based instructional design, and presents longitudinal in-depth study results based on empirical data collected from the four Web-course contests in two years from the perspective of outstanding on-line teachers. Significantly, three categories of six Web-based pedagogical models induced from this research project are presented and how and why teachers would like to use certain teaching models are discussed. In addition, characteristics of the outstanding online teachers and issues inherent in this alternative mode of a web-based informal educational setting are discussed. Finally, more research issues, questions or future research work are raised or identified for further study.

Keywords: School for All, Web-based learning community, information technology, lifelong learning

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, xxxxxxxxx

Accepted: 7 August 2003

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The use of innovative ICT in the active pursuit of literacy

M. Watts & C. Lloyd, University of Surrey Roehampton, UK

E-mail: M.Watts@roehampton.ac.uk

This paper investigates classroom interventions using a particular form of multimedia ICT, and looks to study gains in pupil learning that accrue from its use. The research takes place in eight UK schools with 219, 11 year-old, children (eight Year 6 classes). Work within the Literacy Hour is detailed in order to evaluate the effectiveness of a multi-media broadband educational communications system and the research data includes pre- and post-test assessments, along with 48 interviews with classroom teachers and pupils. The children are presented with a series of journalistic tasks and classroom activities that they resolve through the use of a compact and coordinated information system. The outcomes demonstrate that children can become self-directive and very active - exploratory - learners in a very short period of time. They quickly enjoy the freedom and control that the system permits and through which they can be shown to enhance particular literacy skills. The lessons to be learned relate to the management and organisation of classroom teaching in the face of systems that promote rapid devolution of learning to the learner.

Key words: Software evaluation; active learning; primary school literacy

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, xxxxxxxxx

Accepted: 20 August 2003

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Realism in the design process and credibility of a simulation-based virtual laboratory

M. Couture, Télé-université du Québec

Email: mcouture@teluq.uquebec.ca

The credibility of an instructional simulation is a most important issue in distance education, where it may replace hands-on activities. This credibility is based in large part upon verisimilitude, a perception strongly influenced by the simulation’s realism. This paper presents a case study encompassing the design process of a simulation-based virtual laboratory, which was guided by a realism principle, and an investigation of its credibility among potential users. We found that many characteristics of the environment associated with the design principle did favour its credibility, but that others had widely varying, even opposite effects among users. User’s prior experience was shown to play a crucial but intricate role in verisimilitude and credibility judgements.

Keywords: Simulation, Experiment, Virtual Laboratory, Credibility, Post-secondary, Case Study

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, xxxxxxxxx

Accepted: 22 August 2003

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Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, xxxxxxxxx

Accepted:

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Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, xxxxxxxxx

Accepted:

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------------- (back to top of Volume 19 index)