R. Lewis
Information Systems Services, Lancaster University
Email: r.lewis@lancaster.ac.uk
Technology-mediated communication is having an influence on the working, learning and leisure activities of everyone. This paper looks at work and learning which have many features in common and yet remain different in many ways as the intentions are distinct. Research into computer support for working and computer support for learning emphasise the differences through rather traditional perspectives but it may be possible that each research domain can offer insights into the other. This paper attempts to draw on both research cultures and makes tentative steps in creating a framework for the new insights which are required if there is to be a better understanding of the ways that communications technology may be able to add new opportunities for distributed communities of learners.
Keywords: Activity Theory; Cognition; Computer-mediated communication; Distributed communities; Learning; Working
Accepted: 1 June 1997
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E. McAteer, A. Tolmie*, C. Duffyå & J. Corbettí
Teaching and Learning Service, University of Glasgow
*Department of Psychology, University of Strathclyde
åDepartment of Music, University of Glasgow
íDepartment of English Language, University of Glasgow
Email: e.mcateer@udcf.gla.ac.uk
Evaluative studies of CMC can produce misleading or even contradictory results due to an (understandable) focus on how the characteristics of the medium affect usage, ignoring the dialectic between technology and culture, of mutual adaptation over time. CMC exchanges in Higher Education take place within a broad teaching and learning system, of which most participants already have extensive experience. This system provides the context within which participants make sense of, and adapt to, the use of on-line communications. Thus interpretations of the processes shaping Higher Education CMC exchanges and their outcomes have to take into account: who participants see themselves as communicating with and why, how this serves longer-term learning goals, and what past experience of engaging with both task and audience they have had; what kinds of exchange are facilitated, both by the medium itself and how the task is organised, and how such affordances are honed over time; and also, how these interactions impact on other aspects of teaching and on learning outcomes.
Keywords: Computer-mediated communication; Evaluation; Higher Education; Music; Language studies; On-line seminars
Contribution to Special Issue
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P. Light, C. Colbourn* & V. Light
Bournemouth University, *Southampton Institute
Email: plight@bournemouth.ac.uk
In an effort to restore quality and flexibility to the tutorial provision on some undergraduate courses, first, second and third year psychology students at the University of Southampton have been inducted into the use of 'skywriting' as a medium for learning support. Email messages from students and tutors, primarily focussed on issues arising from the course content, are directed to a course list so that all participants receive them; both tutors and students may reply to these. The course tutor maintains a Web-based archive of threaded discussions by the occasional modification of message subject lines. Within this archive, the exchanges can be searched and read by theme, by participant, or by date. This provision is in addition to the usual lectures and face-to-face tutorial meetings. This paper examines students' participation in skywriting on three courses. Participation is examined in relation to gender, and to attitudes and experience with computers. Levels of contribution to face-to-face tutorials and to skywriting are compared, and their relation to students' learning styles is explored.
Keywords: Computer-mediated communication; Email; Higher Education; Learning; Tutorial
Contribution to Special Issue
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C.K. Crook
Department of Human Sciences, Loughborough University
Email: c.k.crook@lboro.ac.uk
One hundred and eighty five undergraduates were resourced with hypertext lecture support documents that were readable with Internet browsers located throughout their campus. The materials included both a bulletin board facility and an email launcher. These features offered learners a more interactive engagement. Usage patterns and student attitudes to this resource were derived from system logs, questionnaires and focus group discussions. The materials were very popular but their study was assimilated to traditional patterns of paper-based learning. No significant use was made of the interactive features. Findings are interpreted in relation to the resilience of established cultures of communication and study within higher education.
Keywords: Hypertext; Internet; Psychology; Undergraduates; University
Contribution to Special Issue
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K. Issroff & M. Eisenstadt*
University College London & *The Open University
Email: k.issroff@ucl.ac.uk
The Open University's Virtual Summer School took place in 1994 and was an experimental project which aimed to use technology to support students who were unable to attend a conventional campus-based summer school. Students on many courses at the Open University are expected to attend summer school, but for some students this is impossible. In the Virtual Summer School, 12 students used a wide range of software to communicate with tutors and each other, attend lectures and tutorials, access resources and complete projects in groups. The students were studying Cognitive Psychology and the work involved a range of activities including programming, carrying out experiments and statistical analysis. The evaluation used a series of questionnaires to the students, which were compared with those of students at conventional summer school. This paper provides an overview of the Virtual Summer School, presents a selection of the results of the evaluation and discusses the issues which arose out of the evaluation.
Keywords: Collaboration; Distance learning; Evaluation
Contribution to Special Issue
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T. Wilson & D. Whitelock*
Centre for Educational Software and *Institute of Educational Technology, The Open University
Email: M.E.Wilson@open.ac.uk
Projects using Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) are becoming of interest to all academic institutions World-wide. STILE (Students' and Teachers' Integrated Learning Environment) is one such project which included four universities in the United Kingdom. The Open University implementation of the project was called M205-STILE and it used a CMC environment with 110 students and nine tutors nationwide and in Europe. The participants were on-line from February to October 1995 and the provision of these facilities allowed distance learning students to avail themselves of better communication with both their tutor and with fellow students. This paper discusses, from both the tutor and student perspective, how computer science students made use of a CMC environment created especially for them. It illustrates that students used the system to learn more about the subject area and about each other, and to sustain or motivate themselves throughout the learning period.
Keywords: Computer-mediated communication; Computer science; Distance learning; Monitoring students
Contribution to Special Issue
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G. Trentin
Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Italy
Email: trentin@itd.ge.cnr.it
The link between distance learning and telematics is becoming ever stronger, yielding new solutions to old problems, innovative educational resources and new teaching/learning models. One of the most innovative and promising fruits of this relationship is on-line education, notably a process whereby all the participants (teachers, tutors and students) are linked up in a computer network; the effect of this is the creation of a fully-fledged learning community in which all individuals take an active part and make a valuable contribution to the group. The aim of the paper is firstly to outline the distinctive characteristics of on-line education methodology and secondly to examine the POLARIS project, which proposes an experimental approach for in-service teacher training based on intensive use of computer mediated communication according to the principles of on-line education.
Keywords: Computer-mediated communication; POLARIS; Teacher training;
Contribution to Special Issue
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A. Calvani*, P. Sorzio** & B.M. Varisco**
*Università degli Studi di Firenze, Dip. di Scienze dell'Educazione
**Università degli Studi di Padova, Dip. di Scienze dell'Educazione
E-mail: calvani@cesit1.unifi.it
This paper presents some preliminary findings from continuing action research involving university students of Education and examines the creation of a community of learners through the use of electronic media for remote collaboration. The main goal of this community was the design and implementation of a Web site about the curicula content of two parallel courses. The research focussed on the evaluation of the impact of technologies on communication processes among local peers and remote peers, and on the role of experts in the learning process. Qualitative analyses were conducted on information gathered from videorecordings of local interactions, personal portfolios, and cognitive maps. Students also completed rating scales on their perceptions of desired and actual function fulfilment (direct instruction, cognitive scaffolding, and affective scaffolding) by local and remote peers and tutors in the accomplishment of goals.
Keywords: Computer-mediated communication; Cooperative learning; Higher education; World-wide Web
Contribution to Special Issue
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S.J. Yates
Faculty of Social Sciences, Open University, UK.
Email: s.j.yates@open.ac.uk
This paper re-examines a number of recent discussions of computer-mediated communication (CMC) in the light of debates concerning gender, identity and inequality. There have been many claims made by disparate groups and institutions, from educators and technologists, through to the advertising of communications companies, which have claimed that CMC-based interactions lack the overt structures of inequality found in other communicative situations. This ideology of 'on-line equality' is partly based upon a number of research findings, as well as popularised accounts of 'life on the screen'. Set against this is a growing body of research into CMC and gender, as well as other structures of inequality, which has made apparent the differences in access and practice across gender. By re-examining the various claims underlying both positions, as well as deploying recent research into the cultural aspects of gender identities, this paper aims to make clear the centrality of gender to CMC interactions.
Keywords: Computer-mediated interactions; Gender; Identities
Contribution to Special Issue
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P. Reinhard, F.W. Hesse, A. Hron & E. Picard
Deutsches Institut für Fernstudienforschung an der Universität Tübingen
Email: petra_reinhard@diff.uni-tuebingen.de
The use of computer graphics for problem solving was investigated during use by individual learners and by distant pairs collaborating by interaction through the screen. In both investigations learners had to correct computer graphics representing population models, either by graphical manipulation or by written explanation. In both situations positive effects of manipulable graphics on problem solving performance were found. However, a detailed analysis of the interaction processes in the collaborative situation showed that, comparing both experimental conditions, static graphics led to a higher proportion of correct content-related statements and explanations of system relations. No differences were observed between both conditions on the participation structure within the learning dyads. The results suggest that for the effective use of graphics in computer-supported collaborative learning, structural support devices that encourage adequate processing and focus learners on the problem solving process seem to be necessary.
Keywords: Computer-supported collaborative learning; Computer graphics; Interaction processes; Problem solving
Contribution to a Special Issue
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A. Tiberghien & E. de Vries
CNRS et Université of Lyon 2, UMR-GRIC, Equipe COAST
Email: Andree.Tiberghien@ens-lyon.fr
This paper compares collaborative problem solving by learners sitting side-by-side with computer-mediated learning at a distance. Three aspects are studied: students' problem solving strategies and interpretation of the teaching situation, their use of components of the situation, and the cognitive processes involved in understanding domain knowledge, energy in physics. The analysis shows how situational characteristics affect the balance between discussion and construction activities, as well as the degree of salience of certain components of the situation. Furthermore, the simple and complex cognitive processes are not expressed to the same degree in side-by-side and distance cases. Implications of these results for the design of teaching situations are discussed.
Keywords: Cognitive processes; Distance collaboration; Teaching situations; Learning physics
Contribution to a Special Issue
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M. Baker & K. Lund
CNRS et Université of Lyon 2, UMR-GRIC, Equipe COAST
Email: michael.baker@ens-lyon.fr
Engaging in reflective activities in interaction, such as explaining, justifying and evaluating problem solutions, has been shown to be potentially productive for learning. This paper addresses the problem of how these activities may be promoted in the context of computer-mediated communication during a modelling task in physics. The design principles of two different communication interfaces are presented. The first allows free text to be exchanged, and the second structures the interaction by providing a restricted set of communicative possibilities. Comparative analyses of interaction corpora produced with the two communication interfaces are then described. The analyses show that use of the second structured interface in performing the problem-solving task is feasible for students, and that it promotes a task-focussed and reflective interaction. In conclusion the different resources provided by different media and the relative degrees of effort that their use requires are discussed.
Keywords: Collaborative problem-solving; Computer-mediated communication; Dialogue; Reflection; Speech act theory.
Contribution to a Special Issue
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P. Brna & M. Burton
Computer Based Learning Unit, University of Leeds
Email: paul@cbl.leeds.ac.uk
Continuing work is described that is aimed at developing a model and a computer-based simulation of a student learning to model which has the potential for providing better computer-based support in the future õ both in respect of providing improved quality dialogues and in terms of comprehending the student's activities. Such a model needs to take into account factors such as individual differences, task requirements and the context in which the student is working. The current (implemented) model focuses on how individual students build a model of energy flow. The recent work outlined here is aimed at extending the model to include two further issues connected with aspects of the student's environment: how collaboration with another student in the model building process affects the processes of learning and problem solving, and how the diagrammatic representations utilised affect model building. A brief review is given of the progress made in implementing this model.
Keywords: Collaboration; Dialogue generation; External representations; Modelling
Contribution to a Special Issue
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R.J. Phillips & A.J. Pierson
School of Education, University of Nottingham
Email: Richard.Phillips@nottingham.ac.uk
An investigation of music composition software in classrooms was used to study some ways in which open software can support problem solving and thinking. Students of different abilities and ages were observed doing music composition with the software in a variety of teaching contexts. The observations, and the resulting compositions, often showed a level of sophistication in musical structure which could not have been achieved unaided. A number of explanations are considered for this: it is argued that an explanation based on cognitive loads is most convincing in this case. The removal of cognitive loads does nothing positive to help students, but simply gives them more space to think by transferring low level cognitive burdens to the software.
Keywords: Cognitive load; Composition; Information technology; Music
Accepted: 14 January 1997
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E. Heeren & R. Lewis
University of Twente and Lancaster University
Email: E.Heeren@trc.nl
Within the 'Virtual Mobility and Distributed Laboratories' project three naturalistic case studies of distributed research communities were conducted with a focus on the communication media used. The findings provide insight into relationships between the different media that the communities selected, and the different activities to which these media contributed. These findings are also relevant for distributed groups in which collaborative learning is the primary aim. A framework is presented for understanding and recommending selections of media for particular kinds of tasks, which is derived by integrating Media-Richness Theory in Activity Theory. This framework indicates how task/media fit may be achieved while taking into account the evolving character of activities in a distributed community. Implications of the framework for collaborative distance learning are discussed.
Keywords: Activity Theory; Collaborative distance learning; Communication media; Distributed research groups; Media-richness Theory
Accepted: 10 February 1997
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S.P. Foubister*, G.J. Michaelson** & N. Tomes*
*Learning Technology Centre and
**Department of Computing & Electrical Engineering, Heriot-Watt
University
Email: G.Michaelson@hw.ac.uk
Ceilidh is an interactive environment which supports computer programming course organisation, practical work and assessment. This paper describes its use to support a first level programming course for the functional language Standard ML. Automated program assessment systems are surveyed and the general Ceilidh approach to automatic assessment is discussed. Extensions to Ceilidh to assess Standard ML programs are considered and an evaluation is made of the effects of its use on student learning. The main conclusion is that Ceilidh use significantly reduces the burden of marking on the lecturer, while not affecting the overall level of achievement of the students.
Keywords: Automatic assessment; Functional programming; Standard ML; Ceilidh
Accepted: 29 November 1996
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H. Povey
Centre for Mathematics Education, Sheffield Hallam University
Email: h.povey@shu.ac.uk
This paper is motivated by the need to find oppositional opportunities within the status quo of mathematics classrooms and the secondary school mathematics curriculum. The document from the National Council for Educational Technology (Mathematics and IT) suggests six ways in which information technology can provide opportunities to which students learning mathematics are 'entitled'. The article is an attempt to draw out ways in which these opportunities might be interpreted which point to more liberatory practices in mathematics classrooms. Each of the information technology opportunities is paralleled with opportunities to begin to develop a social justice curriculum in and through the teaching and learning of mathematics, a curriculum designed to enable students to participate in a democracy more effectively.
Keywords: Information technology; Mathematics; School students; Social justice curriculum
Accepted: 22 December 1996
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N. Adam & M. Wild
Edith Cowan University, Western Australia
Email: m.wild@cowan.edu.au
This paper describes an investigation into the effect of CD-ROM storybooks on primary students' attitudes towards reading. The degree of change in students' attitudes towards reading on exposure to CD-ROM storybooks was assessed using questionnaires in an experimental pretest-posttest design, together with interviews of reluctant readers and unstructured observations of the treatment group. Results showed that while no significant difference in children's attitudes existed between treatment and control groups after the treatment period, both groups demonstrated a similar development in their attitudes towards traditional reading materials. Further results indicated a significant difference between reluctant and willing readers in the treatment group.
Keywords: Attitudes; CD-ROM storybooks; Interactive books; Learning; Literacy; Reading intervention
Accepted: 27 February 1997
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T. Cockerton & R. Shimell
School of Psychology, Middlesex University
Email: t.cockerton@mdx.ac.uk
This paper describes a classroom-based experimental evaluation of an electronic history 'book' presented in a hypermedia environment. It was compared with a paper-based version of the same material. Observations of children's activities and interactions revealed that they had few problems using the hypermedia document as an information source and also rated it more positively, in terms of ease of use, than those children using the paper-based version. However, no significant differences were found between the two groups in the number of questions children completed and answered correctly, their interest in the material, and task difficulty. The implications of these findings and the role of evaluation in determining the educational value of computer-based activities are discussed.
Key Words: Evaluation; Hypermedia; Hypertext; Learning.
Accepted: 27 March 1997
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C-K. Chang & G-D. Chen
National Central University, Taiwan R.O.C.
Email: chen@db.csie.ncu.edu.tw
Many existing Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) systems use computer programs to simulate a teacher for individual learning. However, regardless of how good the CAL system is, a student should also interact with learning companions and human teachers. Due to the popularity and ease of access to computer networks and communication tools, network facilities can be incorporated into a CAL system to make it a distance CAL system. To attain an effective learning outcome, a distance CAL system must be able to: define a group learning model; constrain and advise the students to learn according to the model, and have query facilities which provide the teacher with information about what a student has done and learned, and what a student should do next. A rule-based system that is conventionally used cannot sufficiently provide those required functions. This paper suggests why this is the case and how an active database system can achieve those goals.
Keywords: Active database; Distance CAL; Learning activity; Production rules; Rule-based system
Accepted: 20 July 1996
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G. Deadman
Lewisham Professional Development Centre & Crofton Secondary School, London
Email: gilldeadman@solotec.edex.co.uk
This paper is based on an action research project which was undertaken in order to explore further the ways in which reflective writing supports pupils' learning. The emphasis here is on one part of the research which involved an analysis of pupils' writing. Twenty four pupils, in one GCSE group, were given two writing activities. The first activity required pupils to write up their work with support from the teacher. The second activity involved pupils writing up their work with support both from the teacher and from a hypermedia reflective writing framework. The writing was then analysed sentence by sentence and the results compared. This comparison suggests that there were improvements in pupils' ability to reason when they were further supported by a hypermedia reflective writing framework.
Keywords: Hypermedia; Reasoning; Reflective writing
Accepted: 17 November 1996
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N. Wiles & D. Wright
Interaction Design Research, Brunel University
Email: nicholas.wiles@brunel.ac.uk
The paper reports on the initial development of a hypermedia environment aimed at teachers. The system uses constructivist learning principles to discover the preconceptions held by teachers about fundamental electrical principles. The interface is designed to be as transparent and non-threatening as possible, thus allowing the users to concentrate on content. The system which was prototyped in SuperCard has generated positive feedback from the eventual end users.
Keywords: Constructivism; Electricity; Hypermedia; Primary
Accepted: 15 August 1996
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A.C. Kurtz dos Santos with M.R. Thielo & A.A. Kleer, Fundaç§o
Universidade do Rio Grande, Brazil
Email: arion@calvin.ocfis.furg.br
This work is based on a Brazilian project that aims to promote the use of a semi-quantitative tool with students (11 - 18 years old) in topics about local environmental problems. The paper presents the VISQ program, a network to analyse models, a set of tasks and three examples of models made by students. Results suggest that the VISQ program is suitable for use in Environmental Education as while working with the proposed tasks students thought at a system level becoming aware of some local environmental issues.
Keywords: Environmental education; Modelling; Semi-quantitative models
Accepted: 10 November 1996
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D. Tonks and S. Armitage
The Management School, University of Lancaster
Email: d.tonks@lancaster.ac.uk
This paper proposes a framework for understanding certain aspects of learning from computer-based management simulations. The framework is developed as a result of small-scale, exploratory research amongst postgraduate students at three European Business Schools. An overview from the general literature on management learning is provided. Claims made in the specific literature regarding student learning from management simulations are considered. There is reference to the methodological problems associated with establishing learning outcomes. The need to conduct research into the learning experience from the student perspective is argued. A framework for mapping student perceptions of management simulation learning is developed using the established notions of learning style and depth of learning. Data from the exploratory research are used as illustration for the framework.
Keywords: Management learning; Management simulations; Students' perceptions
Accepted: 10 September 1996
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A.S. Dhillon, Science Education
Education Department, The University of Auckland
New Email: harmesh@singnet.com.sg
The paper outlines an interactive problem-solving system based, to an extent, on constructivism. It takes the prior knowledge of students into account and allows them to initiate and control the interaction. The rationale for the program and the methods used to obtain the data informing the program development are detailed. Insight into the program is provided through a discussion of its features and internal structure. The program evaluation which was done through students using it for the solution of two problems and through student feedback using questionnaires and interviews, shows the potential and the need for an expansion of the system.
Keywords: Computer-assisted learning; Interactive computer learning; Learning environments; Mechanics; Problem solving; Rotational dynamics
Accepted 23 August 1996
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